树突细胞和Toll样受体的发现与疫苗的研制

2011年,由于在免疫学研究领域的开创性的研究,Ralph Steinman,Jules Hoffmann和Bruce Beutler获得了诺贝尔生理学医学奖.Ralph Steinman发现了树突细胞及其主要功能;Jules Hoffmann和Bruce Beutler发现Toll样受体在固有免疫应答中的作用.他们的...     

Toll样受体与树突状细胞介导的天然免疫和获得性免疫

树突状细胞(dendritic cells,DCs)作为迄今所发现的抗原提呈功能最强的一类抗原提呈细胞,是联结天然免疫和获得性免疫的桥梁。Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是一类进化保守的胚系编码的模式识别受体,在DCs的抗原识别、递呈及激活T细胞等方面具有重要作用,是机体受外来抗原入侵后作出适当免疫反应的调控点。现就TLRs在不同DCs亚群中的分布、与DCs介导的天然免疫和获得性免疫的关系及DCs功能可塑性的分子基础作一综述。     

Toll样受体介导的肠道免疫研究进展

黏膜免疫系统的第一道防线——肠黏膜上皮,不但能区分和识别致病菌和共生菌,而且能启动适当的免疫应答。在机体正常情况下,肠黏膜上皮细胞（IEC）对肠道共生菌持耐受状态,维持肠道内环境的稳定。IEC能识别致病菌的危险信号,激活派伊尔结节,启动免疫应答。有关实验已证实肠黏膜上皮针对肠腔细菌呈“耐受”或“非耐受”状态,主要依赖于Toll样受体（TLRS）介导的信号转导通路。     

Toll样受体研究进展

Toll最早在果蝇中被发现。Toll受体蛋白（dToll）不仅参与果蝇胚胎发育时背腹的形成,而且参与成蝇对病原体侵袭的先天性免疫应答,是微生物诱导成年果蝇产生抗菌肽的信号转导通道的门户。Toll样受体是先天性模式识别受体,在细胞活化信号的转导中起重要作用。它作为联系先天性与获得性免疫系统的桥梁,备受人们关注。     

Toll样受体在烟曲霉侵染宿主细胞过程中作用的研究进展

烟曲霉侵染宿主细胞时伴有明显的细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排,而重要模式识别受体PRRs(pattern recognition receptors)之一,Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLR)参与调节病原细菌诱导的宿主细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排,其中TLR2和TLR4两亚型可以识别烟曲霉的病原相关分子模式PAMP(pathogen-assosiated molecular patterns),并诱发炎症因子表达等一系列效应信号,在宿主细胞抗烟曲霉天然免疫中发挥重要作用,但在烟曲霉内化侵入过程中TLR能否特异性介导细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排尚不清楚。因此,研究揭示TLR激活在烟曲霉侵入宿主细胞的调控作用,对寻找可能的抗真菌药物作用靶点具有重要意义。     

Toll样受体的研究进展

Toll样受体是近几年发现的天然免疫受体,它们不仅能特异性地识别病原微生物的结构成分,激活天然免疫,同时也为激活获得性免疫提供共刺激信号。Toll样受体是天然免疫与获得性免疫之间的连接点。     

Toll样受体直接调节Treg细胞抑制功能的研究进展

Treg细胞具有维持自身免疫耐受,调节免疫应答的作用。Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors,TLRs）家族可识别病原相关分子模式或内源性配体,启动固有和适应性免疫应答。Treg细胞选择性表达某些TLRs,TLRs活化可能直接增强或降低Treg的免疫抑制功能,这种调节可以影响对感染和肿瘤的免疫监视、移植免疫排斥和自身免疫病发生的进程。因此,了解两者的关系对发现新的治疗靶点和对策有重要的作用。简要综述TLRs对Treg细胞抑制功能直接调节作用的研究进展。     

Toll 样受体研究进展

Toll样受体（Toll－like receptors,TLRs）是新近发现的先天性免疫系统中的细胞跨膜受体及病原模式识别受体之一,在急性炎症反应细胞吞噬作用的调节和细胞信号转导及细胞凋亡中起重要作用,简要综述了Toll样受体的发现、分布、基因定位与结构特点、配体特异性及其介导的信号通路,并对其研究意义与前景作了简述。     

Toll样受体对T细胞功能及代谢的影响

Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors, TLRs）在先天免疫系统中广泛表达,可通过促进抗原提呈细胞（antigen presenting cells,APC）共刺激分子的表达从而间接导致T细胞活化。然而研究发现,TLR也可在T细胞中表达,并可在没有APC的情况下直接调节T细胞的代谢与功能。本文综述了TLR信号对不同T细胞亚群代谢和免疫功能的直接调控作用,为T细胞介导的癌症及自身免疫病等疾病的预防和治疗提供了新的思路。     

树突状细胞与Toll受体研究新进展

树突状细胞是最强的抗原提呈细胞,在免疫系统中发挥着着重要作用。Toll样受体是表达在树突状细胞上的一种PRRs,主要功能是通过识别病原体微生物所携带的病原相关分子模式激活DC,使其分泌各种免疫调节细胞因子,从而启动免疫应答。在肠道免疫中TLR信号的激活为肠道提供保护作用。本文简述了树突状细胞的生物特性、不同亚型。重点阐述了Toll样受体在肠道免疫中的作用及益生菌对肠道Toll样受体表达的影响。     

Murine mammary carcinoma cells and CD11c dendritic cells elicit distinct responses to lipopolysaccharide and exhibit differential expression of genes required for TLR4 signaling

Although TLR are often studied on DC because of their ability to bridge innate and adaptive defenses, TLR are also expressed by epithelial cells. Because the majority of cancers are carcinomas, and thus of epithelial origin, we wanted to know whether a carcinoma and DC responded similarly to a TLR agonist. We found the mammary carcinoma 4T1 and CD11c⁺ DC both secreted proinflammatory chemokines in response to the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However a clear dichotomy existed. DC, but not 4T1 secreted IL-1β, TNF-α, and upregulated CD80 and CD86 expression following LPS treatment. A potential reason for differential responsiveness was that DC expressed greater levels of TLR4, CD14, Myd88, and TRAM. Despite the low level of TLR signaling proteins, the carcinoma were able to elicit a range of responses contingent upon the source, dose, length, and frequency of TLR agonist treatment. Thus, carcinoma and DC are distinctly responsive to LPS.     

Lung CD8+ T cells in COPD have increased expression of bacterial TLRs

Background

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on T cells can modulate their responses, however, the extent and significance of TLR expression by lung T cells, NK cells, or NKT cells in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is unknown.

Methods

Lung tissue collected from clinically-indicated resections (n = 34) was used either: (a) to compare the expression of TLR1, TLR2, TLR2/1, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6 and TLR9 on lung CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, NK cells and NKT cells from smokers with or without COPD; or (b) to isolate CD8+ T cells for culture with anti-CD3ε without or with various TLR ligands. We measured protein expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-13, perforin, granzyme A, granzyme B, soluble FasL, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL11, and CXCL9 in supernatants.

Results

All the lung subsets analyzed demonstrated low levels of specific TLR expression, but the percentage of CD8+ T cells expressing TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR6 and TLR2/1 was significantly increased in COPD subjects relative to those without COPD. In contrast, from the same subjects, only TLR2/1 and TLR2 on lung CD4+ T cells and CD8+ NKT cells, respectively, showed a significant increase in COPD and there was no difference in TLR expression on lung CD56+ NK cells. Production of the Tc1 cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α by lung CD8+ T cells were significantly increased via co-stimulation by Pam3CSK4, a specific TLR2/1 ligand, but not by other agonists. Furthermore, this increase in cytokine production was specific to lung CD8+ T cells from patients with COPD as compared to lung CD8+ T cells from smokers without COPD.

Conclusions

These data suggest that as lung function worsens in COPD, the auto-aggressive behavior of lung CD8+ T cells could increase in response to microbial TLR ligands, specifically ligands against TLR2/1.     

Fever range temperature promotes TLR4 expression and signaling in dendritic cells

Fever improves survival and shortens disease duration in microbial infections. However, the mechanisms of these beneficial responses still remain elusive. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play important roles in sensing microbes invading and therefore we hypothesized that fever range temperature may enhance responsiveness of dendritic cells (DCs) to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by promoting TLR4 expression and signaling. In this study, we found that pretreatment of DCs with 39.5 degrees C temperature can up-regulate TLR4 expression in DCs and enhances LPS-induced DC production of interleukins (IL) IL-6, IL-10 and IL-12 but not tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). Blockade of the autocrine action of IL-10 could increase LPS-induced TNF-alpha and IL-12 production in DCs. Further experiments confirmed that TLR4 ligation activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and nuclear factor-kappaB pathways more potently in DCs pretreated with 39.5 degrees C. We conclude that fever range temperature can promote TLR4 expression and signaling in DCs, leading to enhancement of immune responses to inflammatory stimuli. These results might reveal a possible mechanistic explanation for the significance of fever in activating innate immune responses.     

Short-term activation induces multifunctional dendritic cells that generate potent antitumor T-cell responses in vivo

Dendritic cell (DC) vaccines have emerged as a promising strategy to induce antitumoral cytotoxic T cells for the immunotherapy of cancer. The maturation state of DC is of critical importance for the success of vaccination, but the most effective mode of maturation is still a matter of debate. Whereas immature DC carry the risk of inducing tolerance, extensive stimulation of DC may lead to DC unresponsiveness and exhaustion. In this study, we investigated how short-term versus long-term DC activation with a Toll-like receptor 9 agonist influences DC phenotype and function. Murine DC were generated in the presence of the hematopoietic factor Flt3L (FL-DC) to obtain both myeloid and plasmacytoid DC subsets. Short activation of FL-DC for as little as 4 h induced fully functional DC that rapidly secreted IL-12p70 and IFN-α, expressed high levels of costimulatory and MHC molecules and efficiently presented antigen to CD4 and CD8 T cells. Furthermore, short-term activated FL-DC overcame immune suppression by regulatory T cells and acquired high migratory potential toward the chemokine CCL21 necessary for DC recruitment to lymph nodes. In addition, vaccination with short-term activated DC induced a strong cytotoxic T-cell response in vivo and led to the eradication of tumors. Thus, short-term activation of DC generates fully functional DC for tumor immunotherapy. These results may guide the design of new protocols for DC generation in order to develop more efficient DC-based tumor vaccines.     

Selective regulation of interleukin-10 production via Janus kinase pathway in murine conventional dendritic cells

In this study, we examined the role of JAKs in regulation of inflammatory versus anti-inflammatory cytokine balance in murine conventional dendritic cells (DCs). Highly purified lipopolysaccharide (upLPS) combined with imiquimod (IQ) synergistically induced IL-10 production by DCs, while each ligand alone showed a slight effect on the IL-10 production. Marked phosphorylation of JAK2, STAT1 and STAT3 was detected in DCs following upLPS plus IQ stimulation. Blocking the JAK pathway by JAK inhibitor I (JAKi) resulted in significant inhibition of IL-10 production by the DCs. However, JAKi showed negligible effect on the DC production of IL-12, IL-6 and TNF-α. JAKi completely blocked the TLR-mediated STATs activation, and attenuated the activation of Akt, a downstream effector of PI3K, in DCs stimulated by upLPS plus IQ. LY294002, a specific inhibitor of PI3K, markedly inhibited the DC production of IL-10. Thus, JAK-PI3K axis appeared to be responsible for the IL-10 production by DCs.     

Preparation of peptide-loaded dendritic cells for cancer immunotherapy

Dendritic cell-based vaccines are being evaluated in clinical trials to determine their ability to activate clinically relevant tumor antigen-specific immune responses. Although some groups isolate dendritic cells from peripheral blood, most have found it more efficient to generate large numbers from peripheral blood progenitors, particularly plastic adherent or CD14+ monocytes, in media supplemented with GM-CSF and IL-4. These DC may then be matured, if desired, and loaded with antigen, such as tumor-associated peptides, prior to administration. We describe the scheme that we are currently using to generate peptide-loaded dendritic cells for our clinical trials of cancer immunotherapy.     

Neutrophils, dendritic cells and Toxoplasma

Toxoplasma gondii rapidly elicits strong Type 1 cytokine-based immunity. The necessity for this response is well illustrated by the example of IFN-gamma and IL-12 gene knockout mice that rapidly succumb to the effects of acute infection. The parasite itself is skilled at sparking complex interactions in the innate immune system that lead to protective immunity. Neutrophils are one of the first cell types to arrive at the site of infection, and the cells release several proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in response to Toxoplasma. Dendritic cells are an important source of IL-12 during infection with T. gondii and other microbial pathogens, and they are also specialized for high-level antigen presentation to T lymphocytes. Tachyzoites express at least two types of molecules that trigger innate immune cell cytokine production. One of these involves Toll-like receptor/MyD88 pathways common to many microbial pathogens. The second pathway is less conventional and involves molecular mimicry between a parasite cyclophilin and host CC chemokine receptor 5-binding ligands. Neutrophils, dendritic cells and Toxoplasma work together to elicit the immune response required for host survival. Cytokine and chemokine cross-talk between parasite-triggered neutrophils and dendritic cells results in recruitment, maturation and activation of the latter. Neutrophil-empowered dendritic cells possess properties expected of highly potent antigen presenting cells that drive T helper 1 generation.     

Interleukin-10 is upregulated by nanomolar rosiglitazone treatment of mature dendritic cells and human CD4+ T cells

Activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma are anti-inflammatory and have been proposed as therapeutic agents for the treatment of Th1-type inflammatory diseases. We report that nanomolar concentrations of rosiglitazone enhance the production of IL-10 from activated human mature monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Also, rosiglitazone specifically induces the production of IL-10 from TCR-activated human CD4+ T cells and that this effect is PPAR-gamma-dependent. We also demonstrate for the first time the presence of a functional PPAR response element (PPRE) in the human IL-10 promoter region. Finally we show that rosiglitazone can induce IL-10 in combination with 1,25 alpha-dihydroxyvitamin D3 to a greater extent than each treatment alone. In summary our findings demonstrate that IL-10 is upregulated by nanomolar TZDs in immune cells, and this may, in part, be responsible for the potential anti-inflammatory effects of PPAR-gamma in humans.