The karyotype of the osprey,Pandion haliaetus (Aves: Falconiformes)

The karyotype of the osprey consists of 74 chromosomes. There are no large macrochromosomes and no typical microchromosomes. Autosome No. 2 has a prominent secondary constriction in the long arm. The Z chromosome is similar in size and shape to the largest autosome, the W is a small metacentric. Among the Falconiformes, the osprey karyotype mainly resembles the karyotypes of some accipitrid species. However, certain characteristic features of the karyotype, a unique secondary constriction chromosome and absence of microchromosomes, speak in favour of maintaining the osprey in a family of its own, Pandionidae.     

Villi and the phyly of Wetmore's order Piciformes (Aves)

The occurrence of villi (outgrowths, projections) on the bases of the basalmost downy barbulcs of breast-feathers is documented with scanning electron microscopy. The presence of these structures is thought to constitute a synapomorphic character for Passeriformes, Trochilidac, Capitonidac, Indicatoridae, Ramphastidae, and Picidae, which once more casts suspicion on the monophylv of Wetmore's order Piciformes.     

Cytotaxonomic study on two putative hybrids in the genusDuchesnea (Rosaceae)

The karyotypes and chromosome associations at meiosis in two types of natural hybrids, 7x and 8x, betweenDuchesnea chrysantha (2x) andD. indica (12x) were investigated. The 7x hybrid had a haploid chromosome set from each parent plant, whereas the 8x hybrid was considered to have a full set ofD. chrysantha and half a set ofD. indica. In the two hybrids, the chromosomes ofD. chrysantha andD. indica conjugated only slightly at meiosis. It is probable that no common genome set between the diploidD. chrysantha and the dodecaploidD. indica exists. The present evidence indicates thatD. chrysantha andD. indica should be considered to be distinct species, although they have sometimes been treated as a single species.     

Cytotaxonomic study of genusHymenasplenium (Aspleniaceae) in Xishuangbanna, Southwestern China

The gametic chromosome numbers of sevenHymenasplenium (Aspleniaceae) species from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Prov., China, were investigated. All the examined individuals ofH. obscurum, H. cheilosorum andH. latipinnum were sexual diploids with n=39 chromosomes. Intraspecific cytological variation was found inH. excisum, which has a sexual diploid (n=39) and a tetraploid (n=78). Only a triploid apogamous cytotype (n=ca.117) was found inH. laterepens. Hymenasplenium apogamum showed the most complicated intraspecific variation and included a sexual diploid (n=39), a sexual tetraploid (n=78) and an apogamous triploid (n=ca.117). This work reports for the first time the sexual diploids ofH. cheilosorum andH. apogamum, which are only apogamous elsewhere in east Asia, Himalayas and Indochina. These results may indicate that this area is one of the diversity centers ofHymenasplenium. Most of the above species have chromosome numbers based on x=39. In contrast,H. costarisorum contains a sexual diploid (n=36) and a sexual tetraploid (n=72), indicating that its basic number is x=36.     

Multilocus perspectives on the monophyly and phylogeny of the order Charadriiformes (Aves)

Background  

The phylogeny of shorebirds (Aves: Charadriiformes) and their putative sister groups was reconstructed using approximately 5 kilobases of data from three nuclear loci and two mitochondrial genes, and compared to that based on two other nuclear loci.     

Complete mitochondrial genome of the peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus (Aves, Falconiformes, Falconidae): genetic differences between the two individuals

The peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus (Aves, Falconiformes, Falconidae) is one of the most common and widespread raptor species in the world. Here, the complete mitochondrial genome of F. peregrinus from Korea, which is one of the breeding ranges, was sequenced and characterized in detail.     

Cytotaxonomic observations in tropical Vaccinieae (Ericaceae)

Chromosome numbers are reported for 36 accessions representing 31 species from nine genera of the tribe Vaccinieae, family Ericaceae. The plants are tropical and come from Southeast Asia and Central and South America. The taxonomy of the tribe is outlined in these regions. Genera are often poorly defined and taxa were chosen to reflect the range of variation of the Vaccinieae. Most Southeast Asian Vaccinium species were diploid (2 n = 24) as were those of Agapetes subgenus Agapetes (apart from the Himalayan A. flava ), Agapetes scortechinii and Costera endertii. All other accessions were found to be polyploid. The correlation between polyploidy, geographical distribution and the possession of an 'anatomical complex' of the leaf and stem in Vaccinieae of New Guinea and the neotropics is discussed.     

Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture,Aegypius monachus,in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes)

A total of 123 nests of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, was found in three different nesting areas in Middle Sakarya Region, Western Turkey, during three years. The number of breeding pairs was 32 in 2010, 46 in 2011 and 42 in 2012. This is the largest Cinereous Vulture colony in Turkey and the most important breeding area in the western part of its distribution outside Spain. Breeding success was 0.78 fledgling per occupied nest in 2010, 0.73 in 2011 and 0.54 in 2012. The most unsuccessful breeding occurred mostly between May and July, when recreational activities and various economic human activities increased in the area.     

Cytotaxonomic analysis of the Himalayan species of the genusTorilis (Apiaceae)

Chromosome studies of four HimalayanTorilis species reveal a remarkable interand intraspecific differentiation of chromosome numbers and karyotypes:T. arvensis (2n = 12),T. leptophylla (2n = 12),T. Stocksiana (2n = 36) andT. japonica (2n = 16). Base numbers inTorilis are x = 6, 8, 9 and 11.     

Experimental assessment of problem solving by <Emphasis Type=Italic>Milvago chimango </Emphasis>(Aves: Falconiformes)

We report a preliminary assessment of problem solving as an estimate of behavioural innovation and learning ability of a generalist and abundant raptor, Milvago chimango, under controlled conditions in aviaries. Experimental tests consisted in presentation of a Plexiglas box with four lids leading to isolated pieces of meat. We recorded time to first contact with the box and time from this first contact to gaining access to the pieces of meat. We recorded the number of attempts to open the box and reach the first portion of meat, and the total number of lids opened by each individual during five successive daily sessions. We found that individuals of M. chimango quickly approached and made contact with the Plexiglas box, and responded successfully to the novel feeding problem of reaching the food inside. In our study, performance of individuals was enhanced after solution of the novel task for the first time, as indicated by the progressively reduced time taken to access the food. Further, some individuals gained access to an increasing number of sections of the Plexiglas box during subsequent sessions, suggesting significant learning ability. Our results indicated M. chimango has a remarkable ability to obtain food in a novel situation, an observation that agrees with anecdotal reports of opening of receptacles to obtain food in urban environments. The results support the idea of behavioural plasticity in this species.     

A study of the egg shells of the Falconiformes

A study of a selection of egg shells of the Falconiformes has been made similar to the earlier ones on ratites, the Anatidae and the Sphenisciformes. Chemical analyses, and histological and plastic embedding techniques were used.
The main part of the shell in all species studied consists of large crystals running through the shell. There was no layer of fine vertical crystals above this and no cover, and even the cuticle was not very pronounced. Histological studies showed no major differences, except that some shells had vacuoles in the outer layers. All such shells also gave an unetched outer layer when plastic embedded radial sections were studied and thin sections showed spaces between and within crystals. These spaces in the outer layers of the shell were of taxonomic interest for they were not present in the Cathartidae, the Falconidae and Sagittarius serpentarius.
Pore channels appeared to be much sparser than in other orders so far studied and all pores were single. Pigment was present on the surface of some shells, but it was also found in different layers of the shell right down to the cone layer and, in one case, had leaked through on to the membrane.
There were significant relationships between total and soluble shell nitrogen which divided the Falconidae from most of the Accipitridae but left Pernis and Pandion in an intermediate position.     

The somatic chromosome complements of 16 species of falconiformes (Aves) and the karyological relationships of the order

Using short term leucocyte culture techniques, the somatic chromosome complements of 16 species of diurnal birds of prey, belonging to four different families of the order Falconiformes were studied. The karyotypes are described and illustrated, and of some species idiograms are presented. In accordance with the family classification, four karyologically different groups can be distinguished in the Falconiformes: (1) Cathartidae, with karyotypes which show only 7 pairs of biarmed macrochromosomes and a considerable number of small acrocentrics and microchromosomes (the diploid numbers are approximately 80). This is the only group in which really large macrochromosomes are found (over 10% TCL); (2) Falconidae, the karyotypes of which include only a single pair of biarmed macrochromosomes, all other elements being acrocentrics of medium to small size or microchromosomes (diploid numbers of approximately 84 and 52); (3) the secretary bird (Sagittariidae), with 36 biarmed macrochromosomes and 44 small acrocentrics and microchromosomes (2n=80 approximately); (4) Accipitridae, the representatives of which never possess more than about 8 real microchromosomes, while their karyotypes show varying numbers of biarmed and acrocentric macrochromosomes of small to medium size (diploid numbers range from 78 to 60).The possible karyological relationships within each of these groups are briefly discussed, while a more extensive discussion is dedicated to the possible relationships between these groups, and those between them and other avian taxa.The variation in karyotypic structures found in the Falconiformes is much wider than that in other avian groups. However, it remains an unanswered question whether this karyological heterogenelty points to a polyphyletic origin of the diurnal birds of prey. Especially the chromosome complements of the Accipitridae are most uncommon among birds, because of their extremely low numbers of real microchromosomes. However, of all the Falconiformes only the karyotypes of the Cathartidae have clear counterparts outside the order, since nearly identical complements were found in representatives of the Phoenicopteriformes and Gruiformes.The present work was partially carried out at the Institute of Genetics and the Center for Clinical Cytogenetics (both in Utrecht).     

A revision of the family Ciconiidae (Aves)

Behavioural and morphological characteristics of all members of the stork family are summarized. References are given to other papers where these subjects are discussed in greater detail for each group of storks. Based on the evidence now available, a revised classification is suggested (Table II) which divides the Ciconiidae into three tribes, six genera, and 17 species. The following genera (of Peters, 1931) are synonymized with other existing genera: Ibis, Sphenorhynchus, Dissoura, Euxenura , and Xenorhynchus. It is further suggested that Scopus should be placed in a suborder of its own and that Balaeniceps be placed in a monotypic family adjacent to the Ciconiidae, pending further study.     

Development of drinking mechanisms in the chicken (Gallus gallus) (Aves)

Summary Development of the drinking mechanism from the day of hatching to the 4 week old chick was studied in relation to the growth of the oropharynx and drinking performance. Results indicate that due to scaling effects in the growing oropharynx, physical factors require the development of extra mechanisms. The swallowing mechanism to transport water from the pharynx into the esophagus during the tip up phase is already present in hatchlings, and does not change during ontogeny. The mechanism for water intake during the immersion phase changes considerably. Hatchlings display pecking behavior towards water. Week old chicks protrude the tongue far out, and the total volume ingested is sucked up by capillary action between the tongue, the floor, and the roof of the oropharynx. In 2 and 3 week old chicks the relative distance over which water is sucked up by capillarity decreases, whereas the volume of water pushed caudad by the tongue and bills increases. Laryngeal suction also develops in this period. At the age of 4 weeks chickens use the adult mechanism to drink. Most oropharyngeal elements increase two to three times in length and width during post hatching ontogeny. Due to these increases, water transport by capillarity alone does not suffice in the older age groups; therefore additional mechanisms such as pressure development by closing the bills and laryngeal suction must develop. Relative to the oropharyngeal length most elements grow isometrically. The width of the lingual alae and the larynx width, however, increase with positive allometry, which improves both capillary action as well as the transport of water during the tip up phase when the chicks grow older. The need to develop extra water transport mechanisms during growth due to scaling effects is shown to condition the radiation capacity of avian drinking mechanisms. Nidicolous birds are, however, not constrained by the need to have a properly operating drinking mechanism during the early ontogeny and may therefore have a better chance of developing alternativ drinking mechanisms then nidifugous birds.     

Global diversity of freshwater birds (Aves)

Among the 10,000 birds species living on earth, 5% (e.g., 560) need imperatively freshwater habitat in order to satisfy at least one of their life history traits. About 11 completed families could even disappear if their wetland habitat left. About 10% (58) of these can be considered as endemic. Africa contains the biggest number of endemic (20) and more precisely Madagascar. Among freshwater species, ducks and geese have a major importance in human activities in northern hemisphere related to food resources (hunting) or birding. Guest editors: E.V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment     

Flexibility of the drinking mechanism in adult chickens (Gallus gallus) (Aves)

Summary Drinking was studied in adult chickens by cinematography and radiography. Three subsequent behavioral phases occur. (1) Water is transported from the water box into the oropharynx when the beak is immersed. Then delicately tuned cyclic motion patterns of beaks, tongue, and larynx transport water by capillarity, squeezing, and suction. (2) During the elevation of the head the tongue is elevated and the larynx is depressed to keep the water in the pharynx against the gravitational and centrifugal forces that result from the upward swing of the head. (3) During the tip up phase gravity transports the water to the esophagus, while the adhering water is pushed and squeezed caudad by tongue and larynx movements. Flexibility in the adult drinking mechanism was analyzed by comparing the drinking of normal and beak-trimmed chickens under normal drinking conditions, as well as while drinking small drops. Three modes of behavioral flexibility were discussed: conservative, regressive, and progressive flexibility. Most behavioral elements of the modal action pattern in drinking are so flexible that a chicken can reorganize the movement patterns of jaws, tongue, larynx, and head to adapt the mechanism to external (drop drinking) or internal (beak-trimming) changes. However, in drop drinking, the normal chicken relies upon a regressive takeover by an ontogenetically earlier developed pattern in the craniocervical motion system. Presence of the observed progressive flexibility in lingual and cervical motion patterns is shown to be a precondition for the avian drinking mechanism to keep up with dominant evolutionary changes in feeding mechanisms.     

Morphological study of Eudromoxyura aspiculuris (Nematoda,Heteroxynematidae) from the tinamou Eudromia elegans (Aves,Tinamidae)

Eudromoxyura aspiculuris (Boero &; Led, 1971) is a parasite of a tinamid bird in Argentina. This is the type and only one known speices so far described in the genus Eudromoxyura Anderson &; Prestwood, 1972. It is here redescribed, and Eudromoxyura elonbyrdi Anderson &; Prestwood 1972 is considered a synonym. The morphological characters and systematic position of the genus Eudromoxyura are discussed. The genera Syphaciella (Mönning, 1920) and Eudromoxyura, the only oxyurids known parasitising birds, have probably arisen independently.     

Cytotaxonomic investigations on some species of the genus Galium (Rubiaceae) from the Balkans

The results of a cytological and morphological investigation on the following species of the genus Galium L. collected in the Balkans are described and discussed: Sect. Platygalium Koch: G. rotundifolium L. and G. boreale L.; Sect. Aparinoides (Jord.) Gren.: G. palustre L.; Sect. Leiogalium Ledeb.: G. heldreichii Hal., G. lovcense Ur., G. album Mill. with the ssp. album, pycnotrichum (H.Br.) Krendl and prusense (C. Koch) Ehrend. et Krendl, G. lucidum All., G. corrudifolium Vill., G. scabrifolium (Boiss.) Hausskn., G. procurrens Ehrend., G. schultesii Vest, and G. bulgaricum Velen.; Sect. Kolgyda Dumort.: G. aparine L., G. intricatum Margot et Reut., G. parisiense L., G. divaricatum Pourr. ex Lam. and G. tenuissimum Bieb.