Rescue of Rous Sarcoma Virus from Rous Sarcoma Virus-Transformed Mammalian Cells

Rat cells transformed by the B77 strain of avian sarcoma virus produce no virus-like particles, yet B77 virus was rescued from these cells by Sendai virus-mediated fusion with chicken cells. This virus rescue was not affected by treatment of the chicken cells with agents that rendered the cells incapable of dividing, although such treatment greatly reduced the ability of the chicken cells to plate as infectious centers after infection with B77 virus. Fusion of R(B77) cells with chicken erythrocytes also led to virus rescue, although with less efficiency than fusion with chicken fibroblasts. Therefore, virus rescue was probably due to a factor or factors contributed by chicken cells which aid in virus production.     

Production of Virus by Mammalian Cells Transformed by Rous Sarcoma and Murine Sarcoma Viruses

Cultured cells of mammalian tumors induced by ribonucleic acid (RNA)-containing oncogenic viruses were examined for production of virus. The cell lines were established from tumors induced in rats and hamsters with either Rous sarcoma virus (Schmidt-Ruppin or Bryan strains) or murine sarcoma virus (Moloney strain). When culture fluids from each of the cell lines were examined for transforming activity or production of progeny virus, none of the cell lines was found to be infectious. However, electron microscopic examination of the various cell lines revealed the presence of particles in the rat cells transformed by either Rous sarcoma virus or murine sarcoma virus. These particles, morphologically similar to those associated with murine leukemias, were found both in the extracellular fluid concentrates and in whole-cell preparations. In the latter, they were seen budding from the cell membranes or lying in the intercellular spaces. No viruslike particles were seen in preparations from hamster tumors. Exposure of the rat cells to (3)H-uridine resulted in the appearance of labeled particles with densities in sucrose gradients typical of virus (1.16 g/ml.). RNA of high molecular weight was extracted from these particles, and double-labeling experiments showed that this RNA sedimented at the same rate as RNA extracted from Rous sarcoma virus. None of the hamster cell lines gave radioactive peaks in the virus density range, and no extractable high molecular weight RNA was found. These studies suggest that the murine sarcoma virus produces an infection analogous to certain "defective" strains of Rous sarcoma virus, in that particles produced by infected cells have a low efficiency of infection. The control of the host cell over the production and properties of the RNA-containing tumorigenic viruses is discussed.     

Mechanism of Oncogenic Transformation by Rous Sarcoma Virus: I. Intracellular Inactivation of Cell-Transforming Ability of Rous Sarcoma Virus by 5-Bromodeoxyuridine and Light

Chick embryo fibroblasts brought into stationary phase of growth by maintenance in serum-free Eagle's MEM medium were infected with the Bryan strain of Rous sarcoma virus (B-RSV) and incubated for 18 hr in the presence of 5-bromo-deoxyuridine (BUdR). The cells were then allowed to resume growth and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis by addition of an enriched F12 medium containing serum and RSV antibody to prevent spread of viral infection. After 48 hr, the cultures were exposed for various periods to visible light, overlaid with solid culture medium, and observed for the appearance of foci of transformed cells. In cultures treated with BUdR at the time of infection, exposure to light resulted in a suppression of focus formation of from 50 to 90% in various experiments. Treatment with BUdR for 18 hr before infection or on the day after infection, followed by exposure to light, had no effect on focus formation. In cultures in which almost all cells were infected, treatment with BUdR followed by exposure to light did not result in cell death. This suggests that suppression of transformation is not due to selective killing of infected cells by this treatment but rather to the intracellular inactivation of the transforming ability of Rous sarcoma proviral DNA.     

Production and Purification of Large Amounts of Rous Sarcoma Virus

Procedures are described for production and purification of large amounts of Rous sarcoma virus. The virus was produced by Rous sarcoma virus-transformed chicken embryo fibroblasts in roller culture which produced up to 6 mg of virus per day per liter of supernatant fluid. Various methods of concentrating virus were evaluated; pelleting yielded the best results in terms of recovery of infectious virus. Purification was achieved by means of successive velocity and equilibrium density centrifugation by using sucrose solutions made in low-salt buffer. A rapid method for the optical density measurement of virus concentration was also developed.     

Infectious Rous Sarcoma Virus and Reticuloendotheliosis Virus DNAs

An efficient and quantitative assay for infectious Rous sarcoma virus and reticuloendotheliosis virus DNAs is described. The specific infectivities of viral DNA corresponded to one infectious unit per 10(5) to 10(6) viral DNA molecules. Infection with viral DNA followed one-hit kinetics. The minimal size of infectious Rous sarcoma virus DNA was approximately 6 million daltons, whereas the minimal size of infectious reticuloendotheliosis virus DNA was larger, 10 to 20 million daltons.     

Virus-Specific Antigens in Hamster Cells Transformed by Rous Sarcoma Virus

Virus-specific antigens were studied in hamster cells transformed by Rous sarcoma virus (RSV). Antigens were localized in the cytoplasm, as demonstrated by fluorescent antibody staining of fixed cells as well as by complement fixation (CF) following subcellular fractionation. Cytoplasmic extracts were analyzed by velocity and isopycnic centrifugation. CF antigens were found in a soluble form and in association with membranes and polyribosomes. Isolated plasma membranes had no CF antigen. Both soluble and particulate fractions with CF activity contained the same antigenic determinants by Ouchterlony analysis. These antigenic determinants were identical to those released by ether treatment of RSV.     

Genetic Determinants of Rous Sarcoma Virus Particle Size

The Gag proteins of retroviruses are the only viral products required for the release of membrane-enclosed particles by budding from the host cell. Particles released when these proteins are expressed alone are identical to authentic virions in their rates of budding, proteolytic processing, and core morphology, as well as density and size. We have previously mapped three very small, modular regions of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) Gag protein that are necessary for budding. These assembly domains constitute only 20% of RSV Gag, and alterations within them block or severely impair particle formation. Regions outside of these domains can be deleted without any effect on the density of the particles that are released. However, since density and size are independent parameters for retroviral particles, we employed rate-zonal gradients and electron microscopy in an exhaustive study of mutants lacking the various dispensable segments of Gag to determine which regions would be required to constrain or define the particle dimensions. The only sequence found to be absolutely critical for determining particle size was that of the initial capsid cleavage product, CA-SP, which contains all of the CA sequence plus the spacer peptides located between CA and NC. Some regions of CA-SP appear to be more important than others. In particular, the major homology region does not contribute to defining particle size. Further evidence for interactions among CA-SP domains was obtained from genetic complementation experiments using mutant ΔNC, which lacks the RNA interaction domains in the NC sequence but retains a complete CA-SP sequence. This mutant produces low-density particles heterogeneous in size. It was rescued into particles of normal size and density, but only when the complementing Gag molecules contained the complete CA-SP sequence. We conclude that CA-SP functions during budding in a manner that is independent of the other assembly domains.     

Genetic Evidence for a Connection between Rous Sarcoma Virus Gag Nuclear Trafficking and Genomic RNA Packaging

The packaging of retroviral genomic RNA (gRNA) requires cis-acting elements within the RNA and trans-acting elements within the Gag polyprotein. The packaging signal ψ, at the 5′ end of the viral gRNA, binds to Gag through interactions with basic residues and Cys-His box RNA-binding motifs in the nucleocapsid. Although specific interactions between Gag and gRNA have been demonstrated previously, where and when they occur is not well understood. We discovered that the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) Gag protein transiently localizes to the nucleus, although the roles of Gag nuclear trafficking in virus replication have not been fully elucidated. A mutant of RSV (Myr1E) with enhanced plasma membrane targeting of Gag fails to undergo nuclear trafficking and also incorporates reduced levels of gRNA into virus particles compared to those in wild-type particles. Based on these results, we hypothesized that Gag nuclear entry might facilitate gRNA packaging. To test this idea by using a gain-of-function genetic approach, a bipartite nuclear localization signal (NLS) derived from the nucleoplasmin protein was inserted into the Myr1E Gag sequence (generating mutant Myr1E.NLS) in an attempt to restore nuclear trafficking. Here, we report that the inserted NLS enhanced the nuclear localization of Myr1E.NLS Gag compared to that of Myr1E Gag. Also, the NLS sequence restored gRNA packaging to nearly wild-type levels in viruses containing Myr1E.NLS Gag, providing genetic evidence linking nuclear trafficking of the retroviral Gag protein with gRNA incorporation.The encapsidation of the RNA genome is essential for retrovirus replication. Because the viral genomic RNA (gRNA) constitutes only a small fraction of the total cellular mRNA, a specific Gag-RNA interaction is thought to be required for viral genome packaging (2). The determinants of virus-specific gRNA incorporation include the cis-acting element at the 5′end of the viral gRNA, known as the packaging signal (ψ), and the nucleocapsid (NC) domain of the Gag polyprotein (3, 14, 62). In Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), the NC domain contains basic residues that are required for the recognition of and binding to ψ, as well as two Cys-His motifs that maintain the overall conformation of NC and are essential for RNA packaging (30, 31).Packaging of gRNA into progeny virions requires that the unspliced viral mRNA be exported from the nucleus. However, cellular proofreading mechanisms ensure that unspliced or intron-containing mRNAs are retained in the nucleus until splicing occurs. Complex retroviruses like human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) overcome this export block of unspliced genomes by encoding the Rev protein, which interacts with a cis-acting sequence in the viral RNA (the Rev-responsive element [RRE]) to facilitate cytoplasmic accumulation of intron-containing viral mRNA (16, 35). The export of the Rev-viral RNA complex is mediated through the interaction of a leucine-rich nuclear export signal (NES) in Rev with the CRM1 nuclear export factor (17, 18, 37, 41). Simple retroviruses do not encode Rev-like regulatory proteins, so other strategies for the export of unspliced viral RNAs are needed. For Mason-Pfizer monkey virus, a cis-acting constitutive transport element induces nuclear export of the unspliced viral RNA in a process mediated by the cellular mRNA nuclear export factor TAP (5, 25, 46, 63). In RSV, an RNA element composed of either of the two direct repeats flanking the src gene mediates the cytoplasmic accumulation of unspliced viral RNA by using host export proteins TAP and Dpb5 (29, 42, 44).The findings of recent studies suggest that specific RNA export pathways direct viral gRNA to sites of virion assembly (56); for example, HIV-1 gRNA export out of the nucleus by the Rev-RRE-CRM1 complex is required for the proper subcellular localization of Gag and efficient virus particle production (26, 57). In the case of RSV, little is known about the trafficking of the viral RNA destined for virion encapsidation or the effects of the gRNA nuclear export pathway on Gag trafficking and virus particle production. However, we do know that RSV Gag enters the nucleus during infection, owing to nuclear localization signals (NLSs) in the matrix (MA) and NC domains. The nuclear localization of Gag is transient, and export is mediated by a CRM1-dependent NES in the p10 region (6, 52, 53). Thus, it is feasible that Gag may facilitate the nuclear export of the gRNA, either directly or indirectly, to promote particle assembly (53).In support of this idea, Gag mutants engineered to be more efficiently directed to the plasma membrane than wild-type Gag by the addition of the Src membrane-binding domain (in Myr1E virus) or by the insertion of extra basic residues (in SuperM virus) are not concentrated in nuclei when cells are treated with the CRM1 inhibitor leptomycin B (LMB) (8, 20, 53). Moreover, Myr1E and SuperM virus particles incorporate reduced levels of viral gRNA compared to the levels incorporated by wild-type particles. Thus, there is a correlation between the nuclear transit of Gag and gRNA packaging, although the Myr1E and SuperM viruses may be deficient in gRNA encapsidation because they are transported to the plasma membrane too rapidly (8). To test the hypothesis that the loss of Gag nuclear trafficking is responsible for the gRNA packaging defect, we used a gain-of-function genetic approach whereby a heterologous NLS was inserted into Myr1E Gag, yielding mutant virus Myr1E.NLS. Our results revealed that restoring the nuclear trafficking of Myr1E Gag also restored the incorporation of gRNA into mutant virus particles.     

Growth Curve and Distribution of Rous Sarcoma Virus (Bryan) in Japanese Quail

On primary infection with the Bryan strain of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), the growth curve of the virus in the brain of Japanese quail was similar to that observed in chicks and turkey poults. Infectious virus disappeared from the brain after inoculation. After an eclipse period during which no virus was detectable, infectious virus began to appear at 2 days and reached maximal titers in the brain samples at 7 days after inoculation. When Japanese quail were infected intracerebrally with RSV, relatively high titers of virus were recovered from brain tissue but not from liver, lung, kidney, or blood of moribund birds. Only tumors produced in the wing web of quail infected subcutaneously yielded high titers of virus. Other tissues yielded no virus, even though wing web tumors appeared as early as in chicks similarly infected. RSV could be propagated in the wing web of quail for at least 14 passages without any loss of infectivity. On the other hand, serial passage in quail brain resulted in a progressive loss of infectivity until virus was completely lost.     

Temperature-Dependent Transformation of Cells Infected with a Mutant of Bryan Rous Sarcoma Virus

Chick embryo cells infected with a mutant (Ta) of the Bryan high-titer strain of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV-BH) are morphologically transformed at 36 C but appear similar to uninfected cells at 41 C. When cells infected with RSV-BH-Ta are switched from 41 to 36 C, morphological changes characteristic of transformation are observable within 10 min. The transformation is reversible; cells shifted from 36 to 41 C have been observed to lose their transformed morphology within 1 hr. The transformation after a shift in temperature is unaffected by inhibition of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein synthesis, demonstrating that the proteins involved in the morphological change are already present. Transformed cells infected with RSV-BH or RSV-BH-Ta take up hexose and synthesize hyaluronic acid at higher rates than uninfected cells or RSV-BH-Ta-infected cells grown at 41 C. However, inhibition of either protein or RNA synthesis, but not DNA synthesis, prevented the induction of increased hexose uptake and hyaluronic acid synthesis after a shift of RSV-BH-Ta-infected cells from 41 to 36 C. Therefore, these biochemical changes are secondary to a more basic change responsible for morphological transformation.     

Comparison of Rous Sarcoma Virus-Specific Deoxyribonucleic Acid Polymerases in Virions of Rous Sarcoma Virus and in Rous Sarcoma Virus-Infected Chicken Cells

Labeled virions of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) were disrupted with detergent and analyzed on equilibrium sucrose density gradients. A core fraction at a density of approximately 1.24 g/cc contained all of the (3)H-uridine label and about 30% of the (3)H-leucine label from the virions. Endogenous viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymerase activity was only found in the same location. Additional ribonucleic acid (RNA)- and DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activities were found at the top of the gradients. RNA-dependent and DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activities were also found in RSV-converted chicken cells. Particles containing these activities were released from cells by detergent and were shown to contain viral RNA. These particles were analyzed on equilibrium sucrose density gradients and were found to have densities different from virion cores.     

Concentration of Rous Sarcoma Virus from Tissue Culture Fluids with Polyethylene Glycol

Concentration of Rous sarcoma virus from tissue culture fluids with polyethylene glycol, with and without NaCl or dextran sulfate, resulted in significant and highly variable losses caused by entrapment of virus particles in proteinaceous debris. Treatment of concentrated preparations with Pronase greatly enhanced the recovery of virions. Maximum recovery of virus particles was obtained by the addition of 8% polyethylene glycol and 0.4 M NaCl to tissue culture fluids, followed by Pronase treatment of the concentrated virus preparations.     

Hybridization of Rous Sarcoma Virus Deoxyribonucleic Acid Polymerase Product and Ribonucleic Acids from Chicken and Rat Cells Infected with Rous Sarcoma Virus

Rous sarcoma virus (RSV)-specific ribonucleic acid (RNA) in virus-producing chicken cells and non-virus-producing rat cells infected with RSV was studied by hybridization with the endogenous deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) product of the RSV virion DNA polymerase system. By hybridizing the total DNA product with excess virion RNA, the product DNA was separated into hybridized (“minus”) and nonhybridized (“plus”) DNA. The “minus” DNA was complementary to at least 20% of the RNA from RSV which remained of high molecular weight after denaturation. A maximum of approximately 65% hybridization was observed between “minus” DNA and RSV RNA or RSV-infected chicken cell RNA. A maximum of about 60% hybridization was observed between “minus” DNA and RSV-infected rat cell RNA. RSV-infected chicken cells contained RSV-specific RNA equivalent to about 6,000 virions per cell. RSV-infected rat cells contained RSV-specific RNA equivalent to approximately 400 virions per cell. Neither cell type contained detectable RNA complementary to virion RNA. The RSV-specific RNA in RSV-infected rat cells did not appear to be qualitatively different from that in RSV-infected chicken cells.     

Properties of a Ribonucleoprotein Particle Isolated from Nonidet P-40-Treated Rous Sarcoma Virus

A ribonucleoprotein particle containing about 20% ribonucleic acid (RNA), and containing little if any phospholipid or glucosamine, was recovered in high yield after treatment of Schmidt-Ruppin strain of Rous sarcoma virus and B77 virus with the nonionic detergent Nonidet P-40. This structure, which probably derives from the internal ribonucleoprotein filament described in electron microscopy studies, contained 80 to 90% of the viral 60 to 70S RNA and only about 10% of the protein present in intact virions. It sedimented in glycerol density gradients at approximately 130S and had a buoyant density in sucrose of about 1.34 g/ml. Studies with (32)P-labeled virus indicated that the ribonucleoprotein particle contained approximately 30 4S RNA molecules per 10(7) daltons of high-molecular-weight viral RNA. Intact virions contained about 70 4S RNA molecules per 10(7) daltons of high-molecular-weight RNA. Electrophoretic studies in dodecyl sulfate-containing polyacrylamide gels showed that the ribonucleoprotein particle contained only 5 of the 11 polypeptides found in the virion; of these the major component was a polypeptide weighing 14,000 daltons.     

Properties and Location of Poly(A) in Rous Sarcoma Virus RNA

The poly(A) sequence of 30 to 40S Rous sarcoma virus RNA, prepared by digestion of the RNA with RNase T(1), showed a rather homogenous electrophoretic distribution in formamide-polyacrylamide gels. Its size was estimated to be about 200 AMP residues. The poly(A) appears to be located at or near the 3' end of the 30 to 40S RNA because: (i) it contained one adenosine per 180 AMP residues, and because (ii) incubation of 30 to 40S RNA with bacterial RNase H in the presence of poly(dT) removed its poly(A) without significantly affecting its hydrodynamic or electrophoretic properties in denaturing solvents. The viral 60 to 70S RNA complex was found to consist of 30 to 40S subunits both with (65%) and without (approximately 30%) poly(A). The heteropolymeric sequences of these two species of 30 to 40S subunits have the same RNase T(1)-resistant oligonucleotide composition. Some, perhaps all, RNase T(1)-resistant oligonucleotides of 30 to 40S Rous sarcoma virus RNA appear to have a unique location relative to the poly(A) sequence, because the complexity of poly(A)-tagged fragments of 30 to 40S RNA decreased with decreasing size of the fragment. Two RNase T(1)-resistant oligonucleotides which distinguish sarcoma virus Prague B RNA from that of a transformation-defective deletion mutant of the same virus appear to be associated with an 11S poly(A)-tagged fragment of Prague B RNA. Thus RNA sequences concerned with cell transformation seem to be located within 5 to 10% of the 3' terminus of Prague B RNA.     

Theta Particles: a Structure Found in Hamster Sarcoma Virus

Hamster sarcoma virus (HaSV), a ribonucleic acid tumor virus, pelleted from tissue culture fluid manifests type C morphology by electron microscopy. However, if virus is first concentrated by polyethylene glycol or ammonium sulfate followed by density gradient banding, the virus shows a dramatically atypical barred core structure, termed "theta particles." This structure suggests a condensation of the ribonucleoprotein into a flat disc. Atypical particles are found with HaSV and not in similarly treated feline leukemia virus or Rauscher-murine leukemia virus. Differences in the composition of HaSV as compared with these other viruses may be responsible for the production of such particles.