Upstream migratory behaviour of wild and ranched Atlantic salmon Salmo salar at a natural obstacle in a coastal spate river

The upstream migratory behaviour of wild and ranched Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in a small Irish coastal spate river was investigated using acoustic telemetry. Prespawning migratory behaviour was investigated including movement patterns at a large natural waterfall in the lower reaches of the river. A strong diurnal pattern was observed for upstream migrants at the waterfall indicative of the need for daylight to ascend this complex natural obstacle to migration. Successful passage of the waterfall was also associated with distinct environmental conditions and no difference in migratory ability was detected between wild and ranched origin S. salar. Wild S. salar tended to exhibit a non‐erratic, stepwise upstream migration pattern after ascending the waterfall while ranched S. salar had an increased probability of displaying more erratic migratory behaviour. Wild S. salar penetrated further into the river catchment than ranched S. salar, although male ranched S. salar exhibited the greatest cumulative distance moved prior to the spawning period. The management implications of escaped or released ranched S. salar and movement at natural obstacles are discussed.     

寒温带兴安落叶松林土壤温室气体通量的时间变异

采用静态箱/气相色谱(GC)法,对寒温带兴安落叶松林区6-9月生长季土壤CO2、CH4和N2O通量进行原位测定,研究了土壤温室气体通量的季节和昼夜变化及其与环境因子的关系.结果表明:在生长季,兴安落叶松林土壤为大气CH4的汇,吸收通量为22.3～107.8 μg CH4-C·m-2·h-1,6-9月月均甲烷吸收通量为(34.0±7.1)、(71.4±9.4)、(86.3±7.9)和(40.7-±6.2) μg·m-2·h-1;不同季节土壤CH4昼夜通量的变化规律相同,一天中均在10:00达到最大吸收高峰.土壤CO2日通量呈明显的双峰曲线,月均CO2通量大小顺序为7月＞8月＞6月＞9月.土壤N2O通量变异较大,在-9.1 ～31.7μg·m-2·h-1之间.土壤温度和湿度是影响CO2和CH4通量的重要因子,N2O通量主要受温度的影响.在兴安落叶松林区,10:00左右观测获得的温室气体地-气交换通量,经矫正后可以代表当日气体通量.     

Experimental study of young fish distribution and behaviour under combined influence of baro-, photo- and thermo-gradients

The complex influence of baro-, photo- and thermo-gradients on distribution and behaviour of young physostomous Leuciscus leuciscus L., leaciscus idus L. and physoclistous fish Perca fluviatilis L. was investigated. 40 different combinations consisting of 4 types of photogradients, 3 types of termo gradients and 4 types of baro-gradients were tested. All considered factors influenced the distribution of physostomous and physoclistous fish with high degree of significance. Under a multi-factorial experiment fish behaviour and distribution are determined not only by a separately taken environmental factor but by the presence of other accompanying factors. Under different combinations of imposed factors, the reaction of fish to an individual factor and the character of the response (positive or negative) may change. Hydrostatic pressure is one of the strongest factors which influence fish distribution. The presence of its gradient may change the character of response of perch Perca fluviatilis to light (a changing of a sign of its photoreaction). Water temperature influences fish distribution more than illumination. However, the definite value of water temperature at which most fish prefer to stay may be changed depending on both the intensity of illumination and the value of hydrostatic pressure.     

Etude des migrations nycthemerales du zooplancton dans un milieu marin peu profond

The sluice-dock of Ostend, a shallow (1,5 m) marine biotope of 86 ha stays closed during some 6–7 months of the year and is not influenced by the tides.During 24 h cycles the nycthemaral migrations of the zooplankton at 5 depths in a watercolumn of 1 meter were studied in relation to several environmental factors: water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and chlorophyl content.The photosynthesis shows a minimum during the night and shows a maximum during the late afternoon, at which time the water-temperature is also maximal.Holo- and meroplanktonic organisms migrate towards the surface around 3–5 o'clock a.m., at which time the chlorophyl content is minimal, hence our hypothesis of nocturnal grazing, this phenomenon perhaps combined with a nocturnal division of phytoplankton cells.Each observed species has its own characteristic behaviour in relation to its negative diurnal phototropism and its own diurnal bottomward migration speed.     

Migration of hatchery reared juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts down a release ladder. 1. Environmental effects on migratory activity

The effects of light intensity, water temperature and river spate conditions on the rate of migration of hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon smolts down a release ladder were examined. Low light intensity and high day time water temperatures raised smolt migration rates: water temperature had littleor no effect at night. Thediel patternofdown-ladder movement wasdetermined by these two environmental stimuli. Smolts demonstrated a threshold response to both light and water temperature: a fall in light intensity, or increase in water temperature, below or above their respective thresholds elicited no further response. As fish progressed through the ladder their movement became increasingly nocturnal, and most entry into the estuary occurred at night. Heavy rainhll caused rapid migration of smolts through the ladder. As ladder discharge remained constant, smolts must have been responding to some other change in the water conditions. Smolts responded to spate conditions irrespective of water temperature and light intensity, and they responded to light intensity irrespective of water temperature. A hierarchy of environmental cues, responsible for triggering migratory behaviour on a day to day basis during the smolt run, of spate> light intensity > water temperature is therefore suggested.     

Influence of water temperature on demand-feeding rhythms in sea bass

Under natural environmental conditions, sea bass feeding rhythms are nocturnal in winter and diurnal during the rest of the year. Increasing water temperature from 22 to 28°C or decreasing it to 16°C had little effect on the dual feeding behaviour of sea bass. An 8:16 LD photoperiod with low temperature or 16:8 LD with high temperature also failed to change the diurnal/ nocturnal behaviour of sea bass. In conclusion, sea bass feeding rhythms did not follow passively the manipulated environmental factors simulating summer and winter conditions in the laboratory, which suggests an endogenous circannual control of the seasonal phase inversion.     

The trans‐equatorial loop migration system of Eleonora’s falcon: differences in migration patterns between age classes,regions and seasons

Internal factors such as experience (e.g. age) and motivation for breeding, and external ones such as environmental conditions (e.g. meteorology and landscape characteristics) can promote differences in migratory behaviour and routes among seasons, regions and populations. Using satellite telemetry we investigated whether such differences occur and which factors promote them among migrating Eleonora’s falcons breeding in the Mediterranean area (Spain and Croatia) and wintering in Madagascar. We found that during autumn migration no age differences occur when crossing the Sahara desert, but in the remaining African regions, juveniles were more prone than adults to fly at a slower and more tortuous rate, as well as exhibiting longer stop‐overs, particularly in the Sahel region. Such differences might be promoted by a lower foraging and pre‐migratory fattening efficiency in juveniles. During spring, routes were significantly more eastern than during autumn, resulting in a loop migration occurring in all studied populations. This could be accounted by seasonal variation in the distribution of trophic resources. Our results show that Eleonora’s falcons integrate spatially seasonal changing resources on a continental scale throughout their annual cycle, changing their movement patterns in response to internal (age) and external (habitat) factors. This loop migration pattern may prove to be widespread among other Palearctic trans‐continental migratory bird species.     

Scale-dependent hierarchical adjustments of movement patterns in a long-range foraging seabird

Foraging animals are expected to adjust their path according to the hierarchical spatial distribution of food resources and environmental factors. Studying such behaviour requires methods that allow for the detection of changes in pathways' characteristics across scales, i.e. a definition of scale boundaries and techniques to continuously monitor the precise movement of the animal over a sufficiently long period. We used a recently developed application of fractals, the changes in fractal dimension within a path and applied it to foraging trips over scales ranging across five orders of magnitude (10 m to 1000 km), using locations of wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) recorded at 1 s intervals with a miniaturized global positioning system. Remarkably, all animals consistently showed the same pattern: the use of three scale-dependent nested domains where they adjust tortuosity to different environmental and behavioural constraints. At a small scale (ca. 100 m) they use a zigzag movement as they continuously adjust for optimal use of wind; at a medium scale (1-10 km), the movement shows changes in tortuosity consistent with food-searching behaviour; and at a large scale (greater than 10 km) the movement corresponds to commuting between patches and is probably influenced by large-scale weather systems. Our results demonstrate the possibility of identifying the hierarchical spatial scales at which long-ranging animals adjust their foraging behaviour, even in featureless environments such as oceans, and hence how to relate their movement patterns to environmental factors using an objective mathematical approach.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区狼牙刺的蒸腾作用研究

对狼牙刺和柠条的蒸腾日变化、月变化作了动态测定,研究了狼牙刺的蒸腾特性及其同环境因子及土壤水分之间的关系。结果表明:(1)狼牙刺和柠条的蒸腾速率日变化基本是以单峰型曲线为主,少数为双峰型。在10:00~14:00时段是狼牙刺和柠条的高速蒸腾期;蒸腾极大值多出现在12:00。(2)从6~9月份,狼牙刺和柠条的蒸腾速率呈逐月下降趋势,不同林龄狼牙刺之间的蒸腾速率月均值差异不明显,但狼牙刺与柠条的蒸腾速率月均值的种间差异比较明显,即柠条的蒸腾作用略高于狼牙刺。(3)一天当中,狼牙刺的蒸腾速率与光合有效辐射、空气温度密切正相关,与大气湿度负相关;6~9月,狼牙刺蒸腾速率的日均值与土壤水分状况密切正相关。(4)在黄土丘陵沟壑区进行人工林草植被建设过程中,应该主要充分了解物种在6、7月份(林木生长旺盛期)的耗水特点及土壤供水能力,以保证植被的快速恢复。     

Influence of environmental factors on shark and ray movement,behaviour and habitat use: a review

Any attempt to describe the spatial ecology of sharks and rays should consider the drivers responsible for movement. Research has shown fluctuations in the environment (abiotic factors) can trigger movement and changes in behaviour and habitat use for many elasmobranch species. Most studies to date have selectively focused on a small number of abiotic factors (i.e. temperature, salinity); however, other factors such as dissolved oxygen, tide, photoperiod, barometric pressure and pH have also been documented to act as drivers of movement in shark and ray species. Although usually examined individually, abiotic factors rarely act in isolation and often differ in their level of influence between species, sex, ontogenetic stage, season and geographic location. This paper reviews the role of abiotic factors as a driver of movement and changes in behaviour and habitat use in elasmobranchs. In the context of a changing climate, insight into how sharks and rays may respond to fluctuating environmental conditions projected under future scenarios is required.     

应用热脉冲系统对桉树人工林树液流通量的研究

应用热脉冲式树液流测定系统和自动气象站 1 999年 9月～ 2 0 0 0年 9月的观测资料 ,探讨了广东省湛江市雷州半岛两个桉树人工林树液流通量 (Sap flux density,SFD)的时空动态及其与环境因子的相关关系。河头和纪家两地桉树林的树液流变化具有明显的昼夜节律性 ,大约从清晨 7:0 0开始萌动 ,1 2 :0 0以后达到峰值 ,夏季连续 4 d中 (2 0 0 0年 6月 1 5日～ 6月 1 8日 )河头 SFD最大值 44.2 1± 4.5 ml/ (cm2 · h) ,纪家 2 9.2± 7.2 ml/ (cm2· h)。此后 ,SFD逐渐减小 ,一直到日落前后降至最低值。树液流在不同的季节具有不同的昼夜节律性变化规律。两地 SF D值的季节波动节律相似 ,湿季时相对较大。但是河头日平均 SFD值 (2 4 36± 1 1 92 .5 ml/ (cm2 · d) )要比纪家 (1 70 3± 82 4 .5 ml/ (cm2 · d) )高 ,这主要是由于两地土壤质地的差异所导致的。在所选时段内 ,SFD的最大值出现在河头的冬季和纪家的夏季 ,这是由于这两天的大气饱和水气压差 ,太阳辐射和土壤有效持水量都比较高的缘故。在空间上 ,从形成层到心材 ,SF D最初有所增加 ,随后持续减小。整个观测期间两地 SFD的极大值均出现在 6月中旬 ,河头为 51 .53ml/ (cm2· h) ,而纪家为 39.85ml/ (cm2 · h) ,显然 ,由于环境条件的限制 ,主要是土     

Olfactory navigation during spawning migrations: a review and introduction of the Hierarchical Navigation Hypothesis

Migrations are characterized by periods of movement that typically rely on orientation towards directional cues. Anadromous fish undergo several different forms of oriented movement during their spawning migration and provide some of the most well‐studied examples of migratory behaviour. During the freshwater phase of the migration, fish locate their spawning grounds via olfactory cues. In this review, we synthesize research that explores the role of olfaction during the spawning migration of anadromous fish, most of which focuses on two families: Salmonidae (salmonids) and Petromyzontidae (lampreys). We draw attention to limitations in this research, and highlight potential areas of investigation that will help fill in current knowledge gaps. We also use the information assembled from our review to formulate a new hypothesis for natal homing in salmonids. Our hypothesis posits that migrating adults rely on three types of cues in a hierarchical fashion: imprinted cues (primary), conspecific cues (secondary), and non‐olfactory environmental cues (tertiary). We provide evidence from previous studies that support this hypothesis. We also discuss future directions of research that can test the hypothesis and further our understanding of the spawning migration.     

Studies on the Relation between the Pigment Migration and the Sensitivity Changes during Dark Adaptation in Diurnal and Nocturnal Lepidoptera

The functional significance of the pigment migration in the compound insect eye during dark adaptation has been studied in diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera. Measurements of the photomechanical changes were made on sections of eyes which had been dark-adapted for varying periods of time. In some experiments the sensitivity changes during dark adaptation were first determined before the eye was placed in the fixation solution. No change in the position of the retinal pigment occurred in Cerapteryx graminis until the eye had been dark-adapted for about 5 minutes. The start of the migration was accompanied by the appearance of a break in the dark adaptation curve. During longer periods of dark adaptation the outward movement of the pigment proceeded in parallel with the change in sensitivity, the migration as well as the adaptive process being completed within about 30 minutes. In the diurnal insects chosen for the present study (Erebia, Argynnis) the positional changes of the retinal pigment were insignificant in comparison with the movement of the distal pigment in Cerapteryx graminis. On the basis of these observations the tentative hypothesis is put forward that the second phase of adaptive change in nocturnal Lepidoptera is mediated by the migration of the retinal pigment while the first phase is assumed to be produced by the resynthesis of some photochemical substance. In diurnal insects which have no appreciable pigment migration the biochemical events alone appear to be responsible for the increase in sensitivity during dark adaptation.     

Altitudinal migration: ecological drivers,knowledge gaps,and conservation implications

Animal migration has been the subject of intensive research for more than a century, but most research has focused on long‐distance rather than short‐distance migration. Altitudinal migration is a form of short‐distance migration in which individuals perform seasonal elevational movements. Despite its geographic and taxonomic ubiquity, there is relatively little information about the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence altitudinal migratory behaviour. Without this information, it is difficult to predict how rapid environmental changes will affect population viability of altitudinal migrants. To synthesize current knowledge, we compiled literature on altitudinal migration for all studied taxa, and identified the leading hypotheses explaining this behaviour. Studies of animal altitudinal migration cover many taxonomic lineages, with birds being the most commonly studied group. Altitudinal migration occurs in all continents except for Antarctica, but about a third of the literature focused on altitudinal migration in North America. Most research suggests that food and weather are the primary extrinsic drivers of altitudinal migration. In addition, substantial individual‐level variation in migratory propensity exists. Individual characteristics that are associated with sex, dominance rank, and body size explain much of the variation in migratory propensity in partially migratory populations, but individual‐level correlates are poorly known for most taxa. More research is needed to quantify the effects of habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, and climate change on altitudinal migrants. Demographic studies of individually marked populations would be particularly valuable for advancing knowledge of the cascading effects of environmental change on migratory propensity, movement patterns, and population viability. We conclude our review with recommendations for study designs and modelling approaches that could be used to narrow existing knowledge gaps, which currently hinder effective conservation of altitudinal migratory species.     

Partial migration in a landlocked brown trout population

Population densities of landlocked lake‐migratory brown trout Salmo trutta were estimated in two distinct lotic sections, separated by a lentic segment, in the Greåna River, Sweden, and individual growth and habitat use were monitored for 835 tagged brown trout from September 1998 to June 2000. Residency dominated in the upstream section where density of 0+ and 1+ year brown trout was low and growth rate high. In contrast, >90% of the brown trout that migrated to the lake originated from the downstream section, where density was high and growth rate low. For ≥2+ year individuals, growth rate was similar between the two stream sections, but densities were higher in the upstream than in the downstream section. Lake‐migrants had higher growth rates than non‐migrants (residents) during the autumn of both years. From September to May, migrants increased their body mass by >35%, whereas non‐migrants increased by <5%. Approximately 70% of the brown trout moved <10 m and <2% moved between the two stream sections, indicating that the lentic habitat might function as a barrier for juveniles. Differences in migratory behaviour, density and growth between the upstream and the downstream section might indicate that environmental factors influence the decision to migrate. It cannot be excluded, however, that the observed differences are genetically programmed, selected by migration costs that favour migratory behaviour downstream and residency upstream.     

Intercolonial differences in raiding activities in the Japanese slave-making antPolyergus samurai

Summary Intercolonial differences in raiding activity were investigated in the field on 9 colonies of the slavemaking antPolyergus samurai. Duration of raiding season, the mean start time of the first raiding trip in a day, the mean speed of outbound and inbound trips, and the mean distance to target nests varied significantly among colonies. The variance in start time of raiding was correlated with that in soil temperature and diurnal change pattern in soil temperature at the nest sites. The speed of trips and the first day with trips in the season also correlated with soil temperature at the nest site. Simple environmental factors well explained the observed variances in raiding activity among colonies. Therefore, raiding behaviour ofP. samurai seemed to be a stereotyped behaviour that is regulated through simple environmental factors.     

Conquering the night: understanding nocturnal migration in birds

Abstract

Migration is a biologically distinct and unique phenomenon that enables the birds to migrate twice-a-year between the breeding and wintering grounds. These movements are known as spring and autumn migration, respectively. Depending on their inherent programming, the migratory birds may fly during day or night or both. Different environmental factors such as, temperature, food, predator pressure and physiological demands of energy storage and expenditure, contribute to the pattern of migrations, day or nighttime. Since, most of them are nighttime migrants they have to make dramatic changes in their physiology and behavior to transform them from being diurnal to predominantly nocturnal. These changes result in different life history stages (LHSs) such as migration, reproduction and molt, in their annual cycle, which are regulated by endogenous circadian and circannual clocks. As a result, the birds start preparing well in advance for the approaching LHS. The present review focuses on behavioral strategies of a nocturnal migrant and understanding of the possible physiological responses to ensure successful migration.     

The diurnal periodicity and cycle of behaviour of the adult cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae)

Adult cabbage root fly (Erioischia brassicae (Bouché)) exhibited a diurnal periodicity in behaviour. Trapping tests indicated that the flies fed from hedgerow flowers in the morning, visited the crop in the early afternoon and returned to the hedges in the late afternoon. In the laboratory the flies also showed a cyclical pattern in behaviour. Feeding preceded oviposition by 3 days and this was reflected in the field by a relative increase in the movement of females away from the hedges and to the crop when they became gravid. The diurnal periodicity and the cycle in behaviour of males was similar to that of the females, indicating that some of the flies' movement was non-appetitive. The tendency of flies to stay for most of the day at hedges resulted in progressive declines in the numbers captured with increasing distances from hedges.     

盐碱池塘浮游植物初级生产力日变化的研究

用黑白瓶测氧法对盐碱池塘浮游植物初级生产力的日变化进行了研究．结果表明,盐碱池塘浮游植物初级生产力存在着明显的日变化,其分布规律与光照、温度、浮游植物现存量等环境因子的变化是相关的．用黑白瓶法连续曝光24h测定初级生产力结果大大偏低于每次曝光2h的全天累积结果．对养鱼池而言,在10：00—14：00时曝光4h再推算全天的初级生产力较为适当．     

Early-season river entry of adult Atlantic salmon: its dependency on environmental factors

River entry of adult Atlantic salmon Salmo salar into the River Tornionjoki, monitored during three migration seasons (1997–1999) by horizontal split-beam hydroacoustics, started early in June when water temperature was c . 9° C and when the discharge varied between 1700 and 2000 m³ s⁻¹. In 1997 and 1999, migration peaked during the latter half of June, 17 days after the peak flood, at water temperatures ranging from 11· 5 to 18·2° C. Few statistically significant correlations were observed between river entry and six measured environmental factors and those that were significant were not persistent over the years. The strongest correlation (  r  = −0·60) was between the number of upstream migrants and seawater level, with a time lag of 1 day in 1998. In 1998 and 1999, no clear diurnal migration pattern was observed, although in 1997 the intensity of midday migration was higher than that of the midnight migration. It is concluded that environmental factors have little effect on river entry of Atlantic salmon in a large pristine river located at high latitude.