Defining the interface between the C-terminal fragment of alpha-transducin and photoactivated rhodopsin

A novel combination of experimental data and extensive computational modeling was used to explore probable protein-protein interactions between photoactivated rhodopsin (R*) and experimentally determined R*-bound structures of the C-terminal fragment of alpha-transducin (Gt(alpha)(340-350)) and its analogs. Rather than using one set of loop structures derived from the dark-adapted rhodopsin state, R* was modeled in this study using various energetically feasible sets of intracellular loop (IC loop) conformations proposed previously in another study. The R*-bound conformation of Gt(alpha)(340-350) and several analogs were modeled using experimental transferred nuclear Overhauser effect data derived upon binding R*. Gt(alpha)(340-350) and its analogs were docked to various conformations of the intracellular loops, followed by optimization of side-chain spatial positions in both R* and Gt(alpha)(340-350) to obtain low-energy complexes. Finally, the structures of each complex were subjected to energy minimization using the OPLS/GBSA force field. The resulting residue-residue contacts at the interface between R* and Gt(alpha)(340-350) were validated by comparison with available experimental data, primarily from mutational studies. Computational modeling performed for Gt(alpha)(340-350) and its analogs when bound to R* revealed a consensus of general residue-residue interactions, necessary for efficient complex formation between R* and its Gt(alpha) recognition motif.     

C-terminal truncation of Noxa1 greatly enhances its ability to activate Nox2 in a pure reconstitution system

Noxa1 activates Nox2 together with Noxo1 and Rac in a pure reconstitution system, but the resulting activity is considerably lower than that induced by p67^phox and p47^phox. In this study, we found that C-terminal-truncated forms of Noxa1 exhibited higher activities than full-length Noxa1. Of the truncations examined, Noxa1(1-225) showed the highest ability for activation. Kinetic studies revealed that Noxa1(1-225) had a threefold higher V_max value than full-length Noxa1 with a similar EC₅₀ value. The affinities of Noxo1 and RacQ61L were not much altered by the truncation. Conversely, the affinity of FAD for the Nox2 complex was enhanced after the truncation. In the absence of Noxo1, Noxa1(1-225) showed much higher activity with a lower EC₅₀ than full-length Noxa1. Noxa1(1-225) showed comparable activity to that of p67^phox with either Noxo1 or p47^phox, although the stability was lower than that with p67^phox and p47^phox. These findings indicate that the role of the C-terminal half of Noxa1 is autoinhibition. The data suggest a two-step autoinhibition mechanism, comprising self-masking to interrupt the binding to the oxidase, and holding of the activation domain in a suboptimal position to the oxidase. This study reveals that when both types of inhibition are released, Noxa1 achieves high-level superoxide production.     

The effect of proteolytic cleavage of potato virus X coat protein on its ability to self-assemble with RNA and viral infectivity

The process of proteolytic cleavage of potato virus X coat protein molecules inside the virions and in the dissociated state in the course of their purification and storage has been studied. In agreement with the previous reports, the intact form (Ps) of the coat protein in the viral particles was found to be gradually cleaved to three discrete lower molecular forms (Pi, Pf, Pu). During the storage of the dissociated coat protein preparations further cleavage was observed with formation of at least three additional lower molecular weight forms (Ppa, Ppb, Ppc). The location of proteolytic cleavage sites leading to formation of Ppa form was determined. The shortened forms Pi, Pf, Pu and Ppa (and possibly Ppc) were found to be incorporated into the viral particles in the course of reconstitution in vitro with the viral RNA. Infectivity of the virus containing only intact (Ps) form of the protein was found to be two to three folds higher than that of the virus containing only Pf form of the coat protein.     

Conformational changes in the phosphorylated C-terminal domain of rhodopsin during rhodopsin arrestin interactions

Phosphorylation of activated G-protein-coupled receptors and the subsequent binding of arrestin mark major molecular events of homologous desensitization. In the visual system, interactions between arrestin and the phosphorylated rhodopsin are pivotal for proper termination of visual signals. By using high resolution proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the phosphorylated C terminus of rhodopsin, represented by a synthetic 7-phosphopolypeptide, we show that the arrestin-bound conformation is a well ordered helix-loop structure connected to rhodopsin via a flexible linker. In a model of the rhodopsin-arrestin complex, the phosphates point in the direction of arrestin and form a continuous negatively charged surface, which is stabilized by a number of positively charged lysine and arginine residues of arrestin. Opposite to the mostly extended structure of the unphosphorylated C-terminal domain of rhodopsin, the arrestin-bound C-terminal helix is a compact domain that occupies a central position between the cytoplasmic loops and occludes the key binding sites of transducin. In conjunction with other binding sites, the helix-loop structure provides a mechanism of shielding phosphates in the center of the rhodopsin-arrestin complex and appears critical in guiding arrestin for high affinity binding with rhodopsin.     

Piracetam inhibits the lipid-destabilising effect of the amyloid peptide Abeta C-terminal fragment

Amyloid peptide (Abeta) is a 40/42-residue proteolytic fragment of a precursor protein (APP), implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. The hypothesis that interactions between Abeta aggregates and neuronal membranes play an important role in toxicity has gained some acceptance. Previously, we showed that the C-terminal domain (e.g. amino acids 29-42) of Abeta induces membrane permeabilisation and fusion, an effect which is related to the appearance of non-bilayer structures. Conformational studies showed that this peptide has properties similar to those of the fusion peptide of viral proteins i.e. a tilted penetration into membranes. Since piracetam interacts with lipids and has beneficial effects on several symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, we investigated in model membranes the ability of piracetam to hinder the destabilising effect of the Abeta 29-42 peptide. Using fluorescence studies and 31P and 2H NMR spectroscopy, we have shown that piracetam was able to significantly decrease the fusogenic and destabilising effect of Abeta 29-42, in a concentration-dependent manner. While the peptide induced lipid disorganisation and subsequent negative curvature at the membrane-water interface, the conformational analysis showed that piracetam, when preincubated with lipids, coats the phospholipid headgroups. Calculations suggest that this prevents appearance of the peptide-induced curvature. In addition, insertion of molecules with an inverted cone shape, like piracetam, into the outer membrane leaflet should make the formation of such structures energetically less favourable and therefore decrease the likelihood of membrane fusion.     

Mechanistic studies on rhodopsin kinase. Light-dependent phosphorylation of C-terminal peptides of rhodopsin.

The phosphorylation of a synthetic peptide, corresponding to the C-terminal 11 amino acids of bovine rhodopsin (VII, residues 338-348), was studied under different conditions. The peptide was only phosphorylated in the presence of photoactivated rhodopsin. Using the same protocol, 12 other peptides, mapping in the rhodopsin C-terminal, were screened for their effectiveness as substrates for rhodopsin kinase. It was found that the peptides became poorer substrates with increasing length, and the best substrates comprised the most C-terminal 9-12 amino acids as opposed to other parts of the C-terminus. It was noted that the absence of the two-terminal residues Pro347 and Ala348 impaired peptide phosphorylation. The effect of the decay of metarhodopsin II on the phosphorylation of rhodopsin and the peptides was determined, and it was found that the rhodopsin and peptide phosphorylations decayed with half times of approximately 33 min and 28 min, respectively. The sites of phosphorylation on the peptides were determined and in all cases the phosphorylation was found to be predominantly on serine residues. Only the 11-residue peptide (VII, residues 338-348) contained significant threonine phosphorylation, which was about 25% that on serine residues. Cumulatively, the results suggest that Ser343 is the preferred site of phosphorylation in vitro. The reason for the poor substrate effectiveness of the larger peptides was examined by competitive experiments in which it was shown that a poorly phosphorylated larger peptide successfully inhibited the phosphorylation of a 'good' peptide substrate. The studies above support a mechanism for rhodopsin kinase that we have termed the 'kinase-activation hypothesis'. This requires that the kinase exists in an inactive form and is activated only after binding to photoactivated rhodopsin.     

The effect of C-terminal fragment of JNK2 on the stability of p53 and cell proliferation

The basal activity of JNK is low in normal growing cells and inactivated JNK targets p53 for ubiquitination. To elucidate if the C-terminal part of JNK is responsible for its binding to p53, the low background tet-off inducible NIH3T3 cell line was selected by luciferase reporter gene and a double stable C-JNK Aa (203-424) cell line was established. After withdrawing tetracycline, the C-JNK fragment expression was induced and cell growth was dramatically inhibited 24 h later. However, the expresion of p53 was found to be increased after the induction of C-JNK fragment, evaluated by transfecting p21^waf-luciferase reporter genes. Our further studies showed that C-JNK fragment could form complex with p53 both in vivo and in vitro. Induction of C-JNK fragment in vivo can increase p53 stability by inhibiting p53 ubiquitination.     

Thrombomodulin blocks the ability of thrombin to activate platelets

When thrombin is complexed to the endothelial cell surface receptor thrombomodulin, it loses its procoagulant activities in that it no longer clots fibrinogen or activates factor V. Studies were initiated to determine if complex formation also blocks thrombin's other major procoagulant function, the activation of platelets. When bound to thrombomodulin, thrombin no longer induces platelets to either aggregate or release [14C] serotonin. Binding studies using 125I-labeled thrombin or diisopropyl phosphorothrombin indicate that the complex does not bind to the platelet. When thrombomodulin is added after thrombin has bound to the platelets, the thrombin rapidly redistributes onto the thrombomodulin. These data suggest that in addition to its other anticoagulant effects, thrombomodulin may also act to inhibit and/or reverse platelet activation by thrombin.     

Piracetam inhibits the lipid-destabilising effect of the amyloid peptide Aβ C-terminal fragment

Amyloid peptide (Aβ) is a 40/42-residue proteolytic fragment of a precursor protein (APP), implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. The hypothesis that interactions between Aβ aggregates and neuronal membranes play an important role in toxicity has gained some acceptance. Previously, we showed that the C-terminal domain (e.g. amino acids 29-42) of Aβ induces membrane permeabilisation and fusion, an effect which is related to the appearance of non-bilayer structures. Conformational studies showed that this peptide has properties similar to those of the fusion peptide of viral proteins i.e. a tilted penetration into membranes. Since piracetam interacts with lipids and has beneficial effects on several symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, we investigated in model membranes the ability of piracetam to hinder the destabilising effect of the Aβ 29-42 peptide. Using fluorescence studies and ³¹P and ²H NMR spectroscopy, we have shown that piracetam was able to significantly decrease the fusogenic and destabilising effect of Aβ 29-42, in a concentration-dependent manner. While the peptide induced lipid disorganisation and subsequent negative curvature at the membrane-water interface, the conformational analysis showed that piracetam, when preincubated with lipids, coats the phospholipid headgroups. Calculations suggest that this prevents appearance of the peptide-induced curvature. In addition, insertion of molecules with an inverted cone shape, like piracetam, into the outer membrane leaflet should make the formation of such structures energetically less favourable and therefore decrease the likelihood of membrane fusion.     

The effects of the trinitrophenylation of the amino groups of glucagon on its conformational properties and on its ability to activate rat liver adenylyl cyclase.

Trinitrophenyl groups have been specifically introduced into the alpha- and/or the epsilon-NH2 groups of glucagon by reaction with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid. Introduction of this group into the epsilon-NH2 position of the hormone leads to an apparant increase in the helical content as measured by circular dichroism, while substitution on the alpha-NH2 position causes little change in this property. The usefulness of the trinitrophenyl group for the study of intramolecular singlet excitation transfer from tryptophan is suggested. The pK and reactivity of the amino groups, as measured by the pH dependence of the rate of reaction with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid, showed that the two amino groups of glucagon have similar properties to those of small model peptides. The trinitrophenyl-glucagon derivatives have little or no activity in stimulating adenylyl cylase of rat liver. By comparison with previously reported results, this demonstrates that the effect of chemical modifications of the amino group on the biological activity of glucagon depends critically on the group which is introduced.     

The C-terminal proteolytic fragment of the breast cancer susceptibility type 1 protein (BRCA1) is degraded by the N-end rule pathway

The breast cancer susceptibility type 1 gene product (BRCA1) is cleaved by caspases upon the activation of apoptotic pathways. After proteolysis the C-terminal fragment has been reported to translocate to the cytoplasm and promote cell death. Here we report that the C-terminal fragment is unstable in cells as it is targeted for degradation by the N-end rule pathway. The data reveals that mutating the wild type N-terminal aspartate, of the C-terminal fragment, to valine stabilizes the fragment. If the N terminus is mutated to another N-terminal destabilizing residue, like arginine, the C-terminal fragment remains unstable in cells. Last, the C-terminal fragment of BRCA1 is stable in cells lacking ATE1, a component of the N-end rule pathway.     

A recombinant C-terminal fragment of staphylococcal enterotoxin A binds to human MHC class II products but does not activate T cells.

Binding of staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) to MHC class II encoded proteins is a prerequisite for its subsequent activation of a large fraction of T lymphocytes through interaction with variable segments of the TCR-beta chain. We cloned SEA in Escherichia coli and produced four recombinant fragments covering both the N- and C-terminal regions. These fragments were used to analyze the interaction between SEA and the human MHC class II products. A C-terminal fragment of SEA, representing amino acids 107-233 bound to HLA-DR and HLA-DP but did not activate T cells. The three other fragments (amino acids 1-125, 1-179 and 126-233) neither bound to MHC class II Ag nor activated T cells. SEA apparently bind to HLA-DR and HLA-DP through its C-terminal part, whereas T cell activation is dependent on additional parts of the protein.     

The effect of visible light on the regeneration of rhodopsin

Both $\text{in}\text{vitro}$ and $\text{in}\text{vivo}$, increased exposure to visible light decreases the regenerability of the visual pigment. Isolated opsin irradiated with increasing periods of white light decreased in pigment formation yields on combination with 9- or 11-$\text{cis}$ retinal. The yield of regeneration of the visual pigment extracted from albino rats depended on the amount of light to which the animal had been exposed. Animals exposed to normal room light demonstrated lower regeneration yields than dark-reared animals, but these yields increased on dark adaption. Opsin from animals exposed to sunlamps did not regenerate any pigment. On dark adaption, the pigment yields increased but the opsin level remained below that for the control group.     

Conformational studies on somatostatin. II. The C-terminal hexapeptide fragment

The results of a conformational study on the C terminal hexapeptide of Somatostatin are presented. Semi-empirical energy calculations and high resolution NMR methods have been used to obtain information on the conformational properties of SRIF9-14 in [2H6]dimethylsulfoxide and 2H2O. It is concluded from the energy calculations that the peptide has an averaged conformation in which semi extended and folded structures are important. Only some of the folded conformations can explain the chemical shift differences between the amino acid residues Thr10 and Thr12 as a ring current shift by the Phe11 aromatic ring on Thr10. The nonequivalence is more pronounced in dimethyl-sulfoxide (0.23--0.15 ppm) where it decreases with increasing temperature towards the temperature independent value in 2H2O (0.03 ppm). This suggests that the folded conformations are somewhat predominant in dimethylsulfoxide solutions. In 2H2O the semi extended and folded structures are statistically equally important and the peptide is more flexible. A comparison with a study on the smaller fragments SRIF10-12 and SRIF10-13 which have similar conformational properties, demonstrates the usefulness of the fragment approach in conformational studies of peptides.     

Differentiation of odontoblasts is negatively regulated by MEPE via its C-terminal fragment

Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein (MEPE) is an extracellular matrix protein that is mainly expressed in mineralizing tissues, including the dental pulp. The purposes of this study were to clarify the localization of MEPE in the tooth germ and to investigate the roles of MEPE in the differentiation of odontoblasts. The immunohistochemical staining in the tooth germ of the upper first molars of male Wistar rats (postnatal day 3) revealed that MEPE was mainly localized in odontoblasts during dentinogenesis. Stable MEPE-overexpressing and MEPE-knockdown cell lines, which were established in odontoblast-lineage cells (OLCs), showed lower and higher differentiation capabilities, respectively. Eukaryotic proteins of the N-terminal fragment of MEPE produced in HEK cells had no effect on the differentiation of OLCs, whereas the C-terminal fragment containing an RGD sequence inhibited their differentiation. These results indicated that the C-terminal fragment of MEPE containing an RGD sequence, cleaved in odontoblasts, appeared to be the active form of MEPE, which may play important roles in dentinogenesis and pulpal homeostasis by keeping the odontoblasts in immature condition.     

The C-terminal proteolytic processing of extracellular superoxide dismutase is redox regulated

The antioxidant protein extracellular superoxide dismutase (EC-SOD) encompasses a C-terminal region that mediates interactions with a number of ligands in the extracellular matrix (ECM). This ECM-binding region can be removed by limited proteolysis before secretion, thus supporting the formation of EC-SOD tetramers with variable binding capacity. The ECM-binding region contains a cysteine residue (Cys219) that is known to be involved in an intersubunit disulfide bridge. We have determined the redox potential of this disulfide bridge and show that both EC-SOD dimers and EC-SOD monomers are present within the intracellular space. The proteolytic processing of the ECM-binding region in vitro was modulated by the redox status of Cys219, allowing cleavage under reducing conditions only. When wild-type EC-SOD or the monomeric variant Cys219Ser was expressed in mammalian cells proteolysis did not occur. However, when cells were exposed to oxidative stress conditions, proteolytic processing was observed for wild-type EC-SOD but not for the Cys219Ser variant. Although the cellular response to oxidative stress is complex, our data suggest that proteolytic removal of the ECM-binding region is regulated by the intracellular generation of an EC-SOD monomer and that Cys219 plays an important role as a redox switch allowing the cellular machinery to secrete cleaved EC-SOD.     

Magnetic anisotropy of the visual pigment rhodopsin.

A new estimate of diamagnetic anisotropy of the frog rhodopsin is reported. The estimate is obtained by combining the data of magnetic field induced orientation of isolated frog rod outer segments as measured by Chagneux and Chalazonitis (1972) and the data of diamagnetic anisotropy of lecithin membranes as recently reported by Boroske and Helfrich (1978). The anisotropy of the volume susceptibilities of frog rhodopsin is calculated to be 4.4 X 10(-8) cgs unit/cm3, which corresponds to 1.5 X 10(-27) cgs unit/molecule, or 9.0 X 10(-4) cgs unit/mol.