The geography of denominations of gypsies from the Indus to the Ibar

Among the numerous, to some extent rather different denominations which the gypsies received from their individual hosts on their apparently entangled migration ways from their aboriginal Indian home to the west, in the far and wide reaching countries spreading between the valley of the Indus and the region of the sources of the river Ibar, the northern liguistic frontier of the Albanian language, 2 larger denomination areas can be encircled. The 1st circle is characterized by the names of the type gebti in Persian, and KIptI in Turkish, resp., the 2nd circle by the denominations of the type Cingene in Turkish, and (a)tsinganos in Greek. The boundaries of both denomination circles run along a line which extends on all sides in equal short distances from the northwestern western, resp., and southwestern boundaries of nowadays Iran with one exception, namely of one part of the eastern frontier of Turkey where the denomination boundary is pushed forward in a comparatively far reaching loop to the west. On both sides of this boundary-line there accidentally occur some denominations which in view of their place value assert themselves only little and are to be ascribed to the respective other denomination circle. On the basis of these facts, an attempt has been made to bring these peculiarities of denominations into causal relationship with two enormous and disastrous situations in the life of the ancestors of nowadays occidental gypsies, namely with the invasion of the Huns in India in the 5th century A.D. and the Mongolian assault in the Iran in the 13th century A.D. These 2 events brought about further historic migration shifts of the border overflowing extent. At present, the so-called gypsies of India have only little in common with the gypsies of Europe although certain features of like shape especially in their stock of words are unmistakable.     

Names and naming: Instances from the ORU-IGBO

Conclusion People have many names. But, changing one's name is no small thing. It can signify a major step in life or an embarrassing story, as in the last case.A person has a complex individual identity. His collective identity is clear from the moment he is conceived. He is one with a body of people, his kinsmen, who share one common ancestor and through him access to land and resources. The continuation of this group and its name is perpetuated through paternal descent.Kingroup membership ensures a person's place in life, his right to exist, eat, live and enjoy. But, who is he, apart from being a kinsman? Which kinsman is he? How are people going to interact with him? His individual identity will become clear through time. He is a re-incarnation of ancestor x. The circumstances of his birth were such. He behaves like this. He has these personal traits. This has happened to him. He has achieved that. There is no permanent role attached to an individual. He is neither bound to class nor caste. He is dynamic and changes constantly. His life is one of achievement, constant striving and upward mobility till death — when it all begins again. His name signals his state of being in time and existence.Sabine Jell-Bahlsen is an anthropologist and filmmaker.     

Reducing malaria by mosquito-proofing houses

Sometimes, valuable lessons from history are forgotten, remain unknown, or worse, are ignored. This article reminds us of the pioneering work of Angelo Celli at the end of the 19th century, who demonstrated that people could be protected from malaria by screening their homes against mosquitoes. Since then, public health scientists have continued to show that simple changes in house design have the potential for protecting people against this life-threatening disease. Yet today, this type of intervention remains virtually ignored. The literature reviewed here demonstrates the enormous potential of these methods to reduce malaria, in the hope that it will stimulate scientific debate and further research.     

EXISTENCE: WHO NEEDS IT? THE NON‐IDENTITY PROBLEM AND MERELY POSSIBLE PEOPLE

In formulating procreative principles, it makes sense to begin by thinking about whose interests ought to matter to us. Obviously, we care about those who exist. Less obviously, but still uncontroversially, we care about those who will exist. Ought we to care about those who might possibly, but will not actually, exist? Recently, unusual positions have been taken regarding merely possible people and the non‐identity problem. David Velleman argues that what might have happened to you – an existent person – often doesn't merit moral consideration since the alternative person one would have been had what might have happened actually happened is a merely possible person about whom one has no reason to care. He argues that his way of thinking can eliminate the non‐identity problem. Caspar Hare argues that merely possible people have interests and are morally relevant. He argues that we can solve the non‐identity problem by rejecting the view that merely possible people are morally irrelevant. Both Hare and Velleman argue that focusing on one's de dicto rather than on one's de re children can help us avoid the non‐identity problem. I analyze the role that merely possible, nonexistent hypothetical entities ought to play in our moral reasoning, especially with regard to procreation. I refute both Velleman's and Hare's views and demonstrate the difficulties we encounter when we try to apply their views to common non‐identity cases. I conclude with the common‐sense view regarding who matters, morally: only those who do, did, or will exist.     

Population history of the middle Euphrates valley: Dental non-metric traits at Tell Ashara,Tell Masaikh and Jebel Mashtale,Syria

Fifty-nine dental non-metric traits were scored using Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System on a sample of teeth from 350 human skeletons excavated at three sites in the lower middle Euphrates valley. The dataset was divided into six chronological subsets: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Early Iron Age with Neo-Assyrian period, Classical/Late Antiquity, Early Islamic (Umayyad and Abbasid) period and Modern period. The matrix of Mean Measure of Divergence values exhibited temporal homogeneity of the sample with only dental non-metric trait scores in the Modern subset differing significantly from most other subsets. Such a result suggests that no major gene flow occurred in the middle Euphrates valley between the 3rd millennium BCE and the early 2nd millennium CE. Only after the Mongolian invasion and large depopulation of northern Mesopotamia in the 13th century CE a major population change occurred when the area was taken over in the 17th century by Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula.     

Mystery of the forbidden fruit: Historical epilogue on the origin of the grapefruit,Citrus paradisi (Rutaceae)

Attempts by the early colonial settlers of Barbados to plant orchards of shaddock (pummelo,Citrus grandis) from seedlings gave rise to the grapefruit(C. paradisi), an apomictic hybrid. Early botanists misidentified the grapefruit as a variety of shaddock, confusing it with a second hybrid growing on Jamaica. The botanist who first named the species, James Macfadyen, is shown here to have described the wrong fruit as a result of such misidentifications. Citrus historians of the 20th century have been unable to confirm the existence of a legendary Captain Shaddock, said to have brought the first seeds of the shaddock to Barbados. The present authors have found a basis for the legend, identifying a Captain Chaddock who traded in the West Indies in the 17th century. In addition, they have rectified the misidentifications of the grapefruit by early botanists that have confused the literature up to the present.     

African ancestry of the population of Buenos Aires

The population of Argentina today does not have a “visible” black African component. However, censuses conducted during most of the 19th century registered up to 30% of individuals of African origin living in Buenos Aires city. What has happened to this African influence? Have all individuals of African origin died, as lay people believe? Or is it possible that admixture with the European immigrants made the African influence “invisible?” We investigated the African contribution to the genetic pool of the population of Buenos Aires, Argentina, typing 12 unlinked autosomal DNA markers in a sample of 90 individuals. The results of this analysis suggest that 2.2% (SEM = 0.9%) of the genetic ancestry of the Buenos Aires population is derived from Africa. Our analysis of individual admixture shows that those alleles that have a high frequency in populations of African origin tend to concentrate among 8 individuals in our sample. Therefore, although the admixture estimate is relatively low, the actual proportion of individuals with at least some African influence is approximately 10%. The evidence we are presenting of African ancestry is consistent with the known historical events that led to the drastic reduction of the Afro‐Argentine population during the second half of the 19th century. However, as our results suggest, this reduction did not mean a total disappearance of African genes from the genetic pool of the Buenos Aires population. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:164‐170, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

How "Caucasoids" got such big crania and why they shrank. From Morton to Rushton

In the 19th century measurements of cranial capacity by Morton and others supported a "Caucasoid>Mongoloid>Negroid" hierarchy of intelligence. This continued through most of the 20th century but was challenged by a nonhierarchical view originating with Boas. Beginning in the 1980s Rushton correlated cranial and IQ measurements and presented a hierarchy with "Mongoloids" at the top. Each of these periods relates to its social context: the 19th-century hierarchy paralleled the height of European world domination; the nonhierarchy of the 20th century reflected world wars, worldwide depression, and the breakup of empires; the "Mongoloid>Caucasoid>Negroid" hierarchy followed the economic success of several Asian nations. Morton's cranial ranking was the result of his sampling error and his acceptance of the hierarchical thinking of his time. But how is it possible for Rushton to support the M>C>N ordering while using the data of several anthropologists who have rejected racial hierarchies on empirical grounds? The answer to this question involves a critique of Rushton's use of the race concept, his aggregation of diverse populations into three traditional races, his claim to explain differences in "cultural achievements" on the basis of variation in brain size, and a number of other problems. The study concludes by noting that the major consequence of these hierarchies is the apparent justification for the exploitation of those at the bottom.     

Changing climate sensitivity of black spruce (Picea mariana Mill.) in a peatland–forest landscape in Interior Alaska

Dendroclimatological research is often based on the assumption that the relationship between tree growth and climate is not variable over time. Here we test this assumption by exploring if climate sensitivity of Picea mariana (Mill.) trees growing in open-stand lowland forest and on top of a neighboring peatland in Interior Alaska is stable or changing over time. Climate–growth correlations at the study sites are strongly dependent on microtopography and vary substantially over time. Trees growing in the open forest site generally display stronger climate–growth correlations, especially significantly negative correlations with late summer temperatures (July, August) starting in the period 1920–1970. Trees growing on the peatland site are less climate sensitive, but display positive correlations between annual growth and temperature of October and December in the early 20th century, while in the late 20th century, significant negative correlations exist with January and February temperatures. This study, thus, demonstrates a transient climate–growth response for P. mariana (Mill.) on two sites typical for lowland Interior Alaska. However, due to multiple possible explanations (e.g. changing climate, coupled with aging trees and a growing peatland surface) it is not possible at this time to pinpoint the exact cause for these changes in the climate–growth relationships.     

THE ‘ENGLISH EXPERIENCE’ AMONG THE HUMBLEST CHINESE IN THE CANTON TRADE ERA (1700s‐1842)

This article puts into context the unusual experience of Whang at Tong, the Chinese boy who was brought by John Bradby Blake from Canton to England, against a wider background of 18th and 19th century Canton where a considerable number of Chinese made a living from foreign trade. Referencing various sources and circumstantial materials, I suggest that prior to his first departure for England, Whang at Tong had already been exposed to an English‐Chinese environment in which he was able to make a living by being an in‐between person, perhaps also picking up some English with a few English‐learning kits. He might have benefited from existing foreign knowledge circulated in Canton when he was young; he might also have contributed to the enhancement of this pool of knowledge after he returned home from England in the 1780s. The experiences of Whang at Tong thus open a window to reconsider how cultural encounters between East and West could have taken place, including especially among ordinary people on a daily basis.     

Fifty-Year Fate and Impact of General Medical Journals

Background

Influential medical journals shape medical science and practice and their prestige is usually appraised by citation impact metrics, such as the journal impact factor. However, how permanent are medical journals and how stable is their impact over time?

Methods and Results

We evaluated what happened to general medical journals that were publishing papers half a century ago, in 1959. Data were retrieved from ISI Web of Science for citations and PubMed (Journals function) for journal history. Of 27 eligible journals publishing in 1959, 4 have stopped circulation (including two of the most prestigious journals in 1959) and another 7 changed name between 1959 and 2009. Only 6 of these 27 journals have been published continuously with their initial name since they started circulation. The citation impact of papers published in 1959 gives a very different picture from the current journal impact factor; the correlation between the two is non-significant and very close to zero. Only 13 of the 5,223 papers published in 1959 received at least 5 citations in 2009.

Conclusions

Journals are more permanent entities than single papers, but they are also subject to major change and their relative prominence can change markedly over time.     

Behavioural responses during feather replacement in house sparrows

Birds lose feathers, whether during molt or by accident, and replace them by processes that are energetically demanding. We hypothesized that house sparrows Passer domesticus biblicus use behavioral means to save energy when feathers are lost, and tested the general prediction that house sparrows growing new feathers adjust their behavior to minimize the energy costs of foraging and to increase net energy gain from their food. To test these predictions we divided 18 house sparrows into three groups: 1) plucked – house sparrows from which we plucked 15 flight feathers; 2) cut – house sparrows in which the same 15 feathers were cut off at the calamus below the barbs; and 3) control – unmanipulated house sparrows with plumage intact. We recorded both the quantity of seeds the house sparrows ate and the time they spent foraging from assay food patches. We found that ‘plucked’ sparrows growing new feathers adjust their foraging behavior by reducing their feeding time and the number of visits to a food patch. This allowed them to increase their patch harvest rate while maintaining a steady body mass.     

Using stable isotope analysis to examine the effect of economic change on breastfeeding practices in Spitalfields, London, UK

Breastfeeding patterns were subject to a number of fads in 18th and 19th century Britain. Feeding infants by hand, rather than maternal breastfeeding or wet-nursing, became more prevalent among both the wealthy and poor. Substitute foods may have been a convenient alternative for mothers employed away from the household. This study used stable isotope ratio analysis to examine the weaning schedule in the 18th and 19th century skeletal assemblage from Spitalfields, London, UK. Analysis of 72 juvenile ribs revealed δ(15) N elevations of 2-3‰ above the adult mean for individuals up to the age of two, while elevations of 1-2‰ were observed in δ(13) C for the first year of life. This suggests that the introduction of solid foods took place before the end of the first year, and that breastfeeding had entirely ceased by 2 years of age. The age at death of many of these infants is known from historical records, and can be used to pinpoint the amount of time required for the breast milk signal to be observed in the stable isotope ratios of rib collagen. Results show that a δ(15) N elevation can be detected in the ribs of individuals who died as young as 5-6 weeks. Not all individuals at Spitalfields were breastfed, and there may not have been a single uniformly practiced weaning scheme. There is, however, more evidence for prolonged breastfeeding during the 19th century than the 18th century.     

Do-not-resuscitate order. What happens after hospital discharge?

We observed 55 inpatients with "do-not-resuscitate" (DNR) orders to determine what happened to their DNR status after hospital discharge. All were admitted to the medical service of a Department of Veterans Affairs hospital. Of the 55 patients, 16 died in the hospital, 10 were discharged to inpatient hospice units, and 1 was transferred to an acute care hospital. An additional 19 patients were discharged to nursing homes. The other 9 patients (16% of the total) survived their hospital stays; 6 successful contacts were made with patients'' spouses. In 1 case the spouse thought a DNR order was no longer desirable. In the other 5 cases the spouse said the DNR status was "probably" or "definitely" still warranted, but only 1 spouse had a written DNR order at home. We contacted 9 of the 14 house officers who had cared for the patients in hospital. Only 2 had ever written a DNR order after hospital discharge. Two house officers said they routinely discussed with family members a patient''s expected dying process at home. Unwanted resuscitation is as undesirable at home as in the hospital. Physicians should discuss future resuscitation procedures with patients who have DNR orders at the time of hospital discharge. Physicians, paramedic service directors, and policymakers also should develop protocols and standardized home DNR orders so that paramedics can honor the wishes of patients in the prehospital setting.     

The development of northern Sylt during the Latest Holocene

Former stages of the morphological development of northern Sylt are reconstructed to extend knowledge of the type and approximate time of the formation of a sandy bay (Königshafen) in the Wadden Sea. Apart from an analysis of historical maps and nautical charts, this paper includes the representation of the results of recent borings and sedimentological findings. The two ways of tracing back the development led to different conclusions, which are discussed. The cartographical conclusions cannot confirm the assumption that Königshafen was a deep bay. The input of dune sand from westerly directions and the formation of a sand spit system from the south have caused great morphological changes up to present times. Since the middle of the 17th century there has been an extension of the Königshafen area. On the other hand, geological investigations show that the Ellenbogen could have been formed between the middle of the 17th century and the end of the 18th century. Before that, Königshafen was sheltered by a large sandy spitly at the Lister Tief. It might have been the location of the famous sea battle of 1644 between the Danish fleet and a Swedish/Dutch fleet. The Königshafen area is possibly a young formation and is, at least since its separation from the Lister Tief by the Ellenbogen, an area of prevailing sedimentation.     

What if Fleming had not discovered penicillin?

What would have happened had Alexander Fleming not discovered penicillin in 1928? Perhaps the obvious answer is that, someone else would have discovered penicillin during 1930s and the Oxford group, would still have purified it sometime in the early 1940s. Here, however, in this counterfactual account of the penicillin story, it is argued that without Fleming, penicillin might still be undiscovered and the antibiotic age would never have dawned. As a result, many of the recent developments in medicine, such as organ transplantation, might have been delayed or, at best, made more hazardous. Penicillin might have come onto the scene a few years later but, had Fleming overlooked the discovery, it seems certain that penicillin would not have saved countless Allied lives, during and after D-Day. Instead of having enjoyed fifty and more years of the antibiotic age, it is argued here, that we would have had to rely upon highly developed sulphonamides, so-called “supasulfas”, and other chemically-derived antibacterial drugs. Indeed, it might be the case that, even well into this new millennium, the antibiotic age has yet to dawn, and medicine is still waiting for someone to chance upon penicillin. Here we discuss what might have happened had Fleming not discovered penicillin and come to the conclusion that the medical armoury available today would have been far different and might have relied solely upon highly developed varieties of sulphonamides or similar, synthetic, non-antibiotic antibacterial agents.