Identification of a plasmid-borne parathion hydrolase gene from Flavobacterium sp. by southern hybridization with opd from Pseudomonas diminuta.

Parathion hydrolases have been previously described for an American isolate of Pseudomonas diminuta and a Philippine isolate of Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551). The gene which encodes the broad-spectrum organophosphate phosphotriesterase in P. diminuta has been shown by other investigators to be located on a 66-kilobase (kb) plasmid. The intact gene (opd, organophosphate-degrading gene) from this degradative plasmid was cloned into M13mp10 and found to express parathion hydrolase under control of the lac promoter in Escherichia coli. In Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551, a 43-kb plasmid was associated with the production of parathion hydrolase by curing experiments. The M13mp10-cloned fragment of the opd gene from P. diminuta was used to identify a homologous genetic region from Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551. Southern hybridization experiments demonstrated that a genetic region from the 43-kb Flavobacterium sp. plasmid possessed significant homology to the opd sequence. Similar hybridization did not occur with three other native Flavobacterium sp. plasmids (approximately 23, 27, and 51 kb) present within this strain or with genomic DNA from cured strains. Restriction mapping of various recombinant DNA molecules containing subcloned fragments of both opd plasmids revealed that the restriction maps of the two opd regions were similar, if not identical, for all restriction endonucleases tested thus far. In contrast, the restriction maps of the cloned plasmid sequences outside the opd regions were not similar. Thus, it appears that the two discrete bacterial plasmids from parathion-hydrolyzing soil bacteria possess a common but limited region of sequence homology within potentially nonhomologous plasmid structures.     

Physical comparison of parathion hydrolase plasmids from Pseudomonas diminuta and Flavobacterium sp

Restriction maps of two plasmids encoding parathion hydrolase have been determined. pPDL2 is a 39-kb plasmid harbored by Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551), while pCMS1 is a 70-kb plasmid found in Pseudomonas diminuta (strain MG). Both plasmids previously have been shown to share homologous parathion hydrolase genes (termed opd for organophosphate degradation) as judged by DNA-DNA hybridization and restriction mapping. In the present study, we conducted DNA hybridization experiments using each of nine PstI restriction fragments from pCMS1 as probes against Flavobacterium plasmid DNA. The opd genes of both plasmids are located within a highly conserved region of approximately 5.1 kb. This region of homology extends approximately 2.6 kb upstream and 1.7 kb downstream from the opd genes. No homology between the two plasmids is evident outside of this region.     

Dissimilar plasmids isolated from Pseudomonas diminuta MG and a Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551) contain identical opd genes.

The opd (organophosphate-degrading) gene derived from a 43-kilobase-pair plasmid (pSM55) of a Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551) has a sequence identical to that of the plasmid-borne gene of Pseudomonas diminuta. Hybridization studies with DNA fragments obtained by restriction endonuclease digestion of plasmid DNAs demonstrated that the identical opd sequences were encoded on dissimilar plasmids from the two sources.     

Dissimilar plasmids isolated from Pseudomonas diminuta MG and a Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551) contain identical opd genes

The opd (organophosphate-degrading) gene derived from a 43-kilobase-pair plasmid (pSM55) of a Flavobacterium sp. (ATCC 27551) has a sequence identical to that of the plasmid-borne gene of Pseudomonas diminuta. Hybridization studies with DNA fragments obtained by restriction endonuclease digestion of plasmid DNAs demonstrated that the identical opd sequences were encoded on dissimilar plasmids from the two sources.     

Transposon-like organization of the plasmid-borne organophosphate degradation (opd) gene cluster found in Flavobacterium sp

Several bacterial strains that can use organophosphate pesticides as a source of carbon have been isolated from soil samples collected from diverse geographical regions. All these organisms synthesize an enzyme called parathion hydrolase, and in each case the enzyme is encoded by a gene (opd) located on a large indigenous plasmid. These plasmids show considerable genetic diversity, but the region containing the opd gene is highly conserved. Two opd plasmids, pPDL2 from Flavobacterium sp. and pCMS1 from Pseudomonas diminuta, are well characterized, and in each of them a region of about 5.1 kb containing the opd gene shows an identical restriction pattern. We now report the complete sequence of the conserved region of plasmid pPDL2. The opd gene is flanked upstream by an insertion sequence, ISFlsp1, that is a member of the IS21 family, and downstream by a Tn3-like element encoding a transposase and a resolvase. Adjacent to opd but transcribed in the opposite direction is an open reading frame (orf243) with the potential to encode an aromatic hydrolase somewhat similar to Pseudomonas putida TodF. We have shown that orf243 encodes a polypeptide of 27 kDa, which plays a role in the degradation of p-nitrophenol and is likely to act in concert with opd in the degradation of parathion. The linkage of opd and orf243, the organization of the genes flanking opd, and the wide geographical distribution of these genes suggest that this DNA sequence may constitute a complex catabolic transposon.     

Parathion hydrolase specified by the Flavobacterium opd gene: relationship between the gene and protein.

The sequence of a 1,693-base-pair plasmid DNA fragment from Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551 containing the parathion hydrolase gene (opd) was determined. Within this sequence, there is only one open reading frame large enough to encode the 35,000-dalton membrane-associated hydrolase protein purified from Flavobacterium extracts. Amino-terminal sequence analysis of the purified Flavobacterium hydrolase demonstrated that serine is the amino-terminal residue of the hydrolase protein. The amino-terminal serine corresponds to a TCG codon located 87 base pairs downstream of the presumptive ATG initiation codon in the nucleotide sequence. The amino acid composition of the purified protein agrees well with that predicted from the nucleotide sequence, using serine as the amino-terminal residue. These data suggest that the parathion hydrolase protein is processed at its amino terminus in Flavobacterium sp. Construction in Escherichia coli of a lacZ-opd gene fusion in which the first 33 amino-terminal residues of opd were replaced by the first 5 residues of lacZ resulted in the production of an active hydrolase identical in molecular mass to the hydrolase isolated from Flavobacterium sp. E. coli cells containing the lacZ-opd fusion showed higher levels of hydrolase activity than did cells containing the parent plasmid.     

Hydrolysis of Selected Organophosphorus Insecticides by Two Bacteria Isolated from Flooded Soil

Flavobacterium sp. ATCC 27551 hydrolysed both diethyl (parathion and diazinon) and dimethyl (methyl parathion and fenitrothion) phosphorothioates while Pseudomonas sp. ATCC 29353 hydrolysed only diethyl (parathion and diazinon) phosphorothioates. Glucose inhibited the hydrolysis of parathion by Pseudomonas sp., but not by Flavobacterium sp. Evidently, the Flavobacterium hydrolase differs from that of Pseudomonas sp. The Pseudomonas sp. converted 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol in the presence of glucose and to nitrite in its absence; 4-nitrophenol was not metabolized by the Flavobacterium sp.     

A novel meta-cleavage product hydrolase from Flavobacterium sp. ATCC27551

The organophosphate degrading (opd) gene cluster of plasmid pPDL2 of Flavobacterium sp. ATCC27551 contains a novel open-reading frame, orf243. This was predicted to encode an alpha/beta hydrolase distantly related to the meta-fission product (MFP) hydrolases such as XylF, PhnD, and CumD. By homology modeling Orf243 has most of the structural features of MFP hydrolases including the characteristic active site catalytic triad. The purified protein (designated MfhA) is a homotetramer and shows similar affinity for 2-hydroxy-6-oxohepta-2,4-dienoate (HOHD), 2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde (HMSA), and 2-hydroxy-5-methylmuconic semialdehyde (HMMSA), the meta-fission products of 3-methyl catechol, catechol, and 4-methyl catechol. The unique catalytic properties of MfhA and the presence near its structural gene of cis-elements required for transposition suggest that mfhA has evolved towards encoding a common hydrolase that can act on meta-fission products containing either aldehyde or ketone groups.     

Identification of an opd (organophosphate degradation) gene in an Agrobacterium isolate

We isolated a bacterial strain, Agrobacterium radiobacter P230, which can hydrolyze a wide range of organophosphate (OP) insecticides. A gene encoding a protein involved in OP hydrolysis was cloned from A. radiobacter P230 and sequenced. This gene (called opdA) had sequence similarity to opd, a gene previously shown to encode an OP-hydrolyzing enzyme in Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551 and Brevundimonas diminuta MG. Insertional mutation of the opdA gene produced a strain lacking the ability to hydrolyze OPs, suggesting that this is the only gene encoding an OP-hydrolyzing enzyme in A. radiobacter P230. The OPH and OpdA proteins, encoded by opd and opdA, respectively, were overexpressed and purified as maltose-binding proteins, and the maltose-binding protein moiety was cleaved and removed. Neither protein was able to hydrolyze the aliphatic OP malathion. The kinetics of the two proteins for diethyl OPs were comparable. For dimethyl OPs, OpdA had a higher k(cat) than OPH. It was also capable of hydrolyzing the dimethyl OPs phosmet and fenthion, which were not hydrolyzed at detectable levels by OPH.     

Purification and characterization of three parathion hydrolases from gram-negative bacterial strains

Three unique parathion hydrolases were purified from gram-negative bacterial isolates and characterized. All three purified enzymes had roughly comparable affinities for ethyl parathion and had broad temperature optima at ca. 40 degrees C. The membrane-bound hydrolase of Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551 was composed of a single subunit of approximately 35,000 daltons (Da) and was inhibited by sulfhydryl reagents such as dithiothreitol (DTT) and by metal salts such as CuCl2. The cytosolic hydrolase of strain B-1 was composed of a single subunit of approximately 43,000 Da and was stimulated by DTT and inhibited by CuCl2. The membrane-bound hydrolase of strain SC was composed of four identical subunits of 67,000 Da and was inhibited by DTT and stimulated by CuCl2. The substrate ranges of the three enzymes also differed, as evidenced by their relative affinities for parathion and the related organophosphate insecticide O-ethyl-O-4-nitrophenyl phenylphosphonothioate (EPN). The B-1 hydrolase displayed equal affinity for both compounds, the Flavobacterium enzyme showed twofold-lower affinity for EPN than for parathion, and the SC hydrolase displayed no activity toward EPN. The range in characteristics of these three enzymes can be exploited in different waste disposal strategies.     

Purification and characterization of three parathion hydrolases from gram-negative bacterial strains.

Three unique parathion hydrolases were purified from gram-negative bacterial isolates and characterized. All three purified enzymes had roughly comparable affinities for ethyl parathion and had broad temperature optima at ca. 40 degrees C. The membrane-bound hydrolase of Flavobacterium sp. strain ATCC 27551 was composed of a single subunit of approximately 35,000 daltons (Da) and was inhibited by sulfhydryl reagents such as dithiothreitol (DTT) and by metal salts such as CuCl2. The cytosolic hydrolase of strain B-1 was composed of a single subunit of approximately 43,000 Da and was stimulated by DTT and inhibited by CuCl2. The membrane-bound hydrolase of strain SC was composed of four identical subunits of 67,000 Da and was inhibited by DTT and stimulated by CuCl2. The substrate ranges of the three enzymes also differed, as evidenced by their relative affinities for parathion and the related organophosphate insecticide O-ethyl-O-4-nitrophenyl phenylphosphonothioate (EPN). The B-1 hydrolase displayed equal affinity for both compounds, the Flavobacterium enzyme showed twofold-lower affinity for EPN than for parathion, and the SC hydrolase displayed no activity toward EPN. The range in characteristics of these three enzymes can be exploited in different waste disposal strategies.     

Indigenous organophosphate-degrading (opd) plasmid pCMS1 of Brevundimonasdiminuta is self-transmissible and plays a key role in horizontal mobility of the opd gene

A fosmid library of the 66kb indigenous organophosphate-degrading (opd) plasmid pCMS1 of Brevundimonas diminuta was tagged with mini-transposon EZTn5 , to determine its sequence using transposon-specific primers. The sequence revealed the presence of a number of tra genes suggesting their role in conjugal transfer of pCMS1. Consistent with the presence of the tra genes, the B. diminuta plasmid, pCMS1::tet, generated by replacing the opd gene with opd::tet, served as a donor for transferring pCMS1::tet into recipient strain Pseudomonas putida. The self-transmissibility of the opd-containing plasmid pCMS1 and the existence of identical opd genes on otherwise dissimilar plasmids suggests a probable role of indigenous opd plasmids like pCMS1 in transferring the opd gene among soil bacteria.     

Distribution and homology of plasmids in several strains of Cyanothece

The plasmid distribution of several clonal isolates of the unicellular, diazotrophic, cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. has been analyzed. The Cyanothece isolates contain three to four plasmids ranging in size from 4.8 kb to 40 kb. The plasmid profiles of three Cyanothece strains (BH63, BH68, BH93) indicated that strains BH68 and BH93 were closely related and that strain BH63 may be more distantly related. A small 4.8-kb plasmid (pSE480), from the clonal isolate Cyanothece sp. strain BH68F, has been subcloned and restriction mapped. Ten restriction sites have been mapped, five of which are unique and suitable for further subcloning. Southern hybridization revealed that this plasmid was present in two out of five clonal isolates of strain BH68 and in one isolate of strain BH93. A 10-kb plasmid from strain BH68F (pSE1000) was found in all of the BH68 isolates and was absent in the BH93 isolate, Cyanothece sp. strain BH93A. No notable physiological changes were observed in the absence of either the 4.8-kb or 10-kb plasmids. Therefore, these plasmids remain cryptic. Further analysis of these plasmids may provide insight into the function of these plasmids and will allow the construction of shuttle vectors for gene transfer experiments.     

Localisation of identical organophosphorus pesticide degrading (opd) genes on genetically dissimilar indigenous plasmids of soil bacteria: PCR amplification,cloning and sequencing of opd gene from Flavobacterium balustinum

Plasmid borne organophosphorus pesticide degrading (opd) gene of Flavobacterium balustinum has been amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the resulting PCR product (1.25 Kb) was cloned in pUC18. Further, a detailed restriction map was determined to PCR product and subcloned as overlapping restriction fragments. The nucleotide sequence was determined for all subclones to obtain complete sequence of PCR amplified fragment. The sequence showed 98% similarity to opd genes cloned from other soil bacteria isolated from diversified geographical regions. The protein sequence predicted from the nucleotide sequence was almost identical to parathion hydrolase, a triesterase involved in hydrolysis of triester bond found in variety of op-pesticides. The signal sequence of parathion hydrolase contained recently discovered twin arginine transport (tat) motif. It appears that tat motif plays a critical role in membrane targeting of parathion hydrolase.     

The aryldialkylphosphatase-encoding gene adpB from Nocardia sp. strain B-1: cloning, sequencing and expression in Escherichia coli.

Using degenerate oligodeoxyribonucleotides (oligos) derived from the N-terminal sequence of an aryldialkylphosphatase (ADPase) from Nocardia sp. strain B-1, an amplification reaction was used to isolate a DNA segment containing a 57-bp fragment from the adpB gene. Based on the nucleotide (nt) sequence of this fragment, a nondegenerate oligo was synthesized and used to screen a subgenomic library of strain B-1 DNA for fragments containing adpB. A 3.55-kb PstI fragment containing adpB was cloned into Escherichia coli, and the nt sequence of a 1600-bp region containing adpB was determined. Under control of the lac promoter of pUC19, adpB expression in E. coli cultures was approx. 15-fold higher than in strain B-1 under the native adpB promoter. Comparison of adpB with the Flavobacterium ADPase-encoding gene, opd, revealed no significant homology at the nt or aa levels.     

Molecular analysis of transferable tetracycline resistance plasmids from Clostridium perfringens.

Conjugative tetracycline resistance plasmids from 15 Clostridium perfringens isolates from piggeries were analyzed by restriction endonuclease digestion and agarose gel electrophoresis. Seven isolates from one farm were found to carry a 47-kilobase pair (kb) plasmid, pJIR5, which had EcoRI, XbaI, and ClaI profiles that were identical to those of a previously characterized plasmid, pCW3. An isolate from a second farm was found to carry a plasmid, pJIR6, which also was indistinguishable from pCW3. Five additional isolates from a third farm carried a 67-kb plasmid, pJIR2, which had at least 29 kb of DNA in common with pCW3. Finally, two isolates from a fourth farm were found to carry a 50-kb plasmid pJIR4, which appeared to consist of an entire pCW3 molecule with a 3-kb insertion. Comparative restriction maps of pCW3, pJIR2, and pJIR4 that identified the regions of homology among these plasmids were constructed. We suggest that many conjugative tetracycline resistance plasmids in C. perfringens may contain a pCW3-like core.     

Isolation of a methyl parathion-degrading Pseudomonas sp. that possesses DNA homologous to the opd gene from a Flavobacterium sp

Two mixed bacterial cultures isolated by soil enrichment were capable of utilizing methyl parathion (O,O-dimethyl O-p-nitrophenylphosphorothioate) and parathion (O,O-diethyl O-p-nitrophenylphosphorothioate) as a sole source of carbon. Four isolates from these mixed cultures lost their ability to utilize the pesticides independently in transfers subsequent to the initial isolation. One member of the mixed cultures, a Pseudomonas sp., however, hydrolyzed the pesticides to p-nitrophenol but required glucose or another carbon source for growth. The crude cell extracts prepared from this bacterium showed an optimum pH range from 7.5 to 9.5 for the enzymatic hydrolysis. Maximum enzymatic activity occurred between 35 and 40 degrees C. The enzyme activity was not inhibited by heavy metals, EDTA, or NaN3. Another isolate from the mixed cultures, a Flavobacterium sp., used p-nitrophenol for growth and degraded it to nitrite. Nitrite was assimilated into the cells under conditions during which the nitrogen source was excluded from the minimal growth medium. The hybridization data showed that the DNAs from a Pseudomonas sp. and from the mixed culture had homology with the opd (organophosphate degradation) gene from a previously reported parathion-hydrolyzing bacterium, Flavobacterium sp. The use of the opd gene as a probe may accelerate progress toward understanding the complex interactions of soil microorganisms with parathions.     

Isolation of a methyl parathion-degrading Pseudomonas sp. that possesses DNA homologous to the opd gene from a Flavobacterium sp.

Two mixed bacterial cultures isolated by soil enrichment were capable of utilizing methyl parathion (O,O-dimethyl O-p-nitrophenylphosphorothioate) and parathion (O,O-diethyl O-p-nitrophenylphosphorothioate) as a sole source of carbon. Four isolates from these mixed cultures lost their ability to utilize the pesticides independently in transfers subsequent to the initial isolation. One member of the mixed cultures, a Pseudomonas sp., however, hydrolyzed the pesticides to p-nitrophenol but required glucose or another carbon source for growth. The crude cell extracts prepared from this bacterium showed an optimum pH range from 7.5 to 9.5 for the enzymatic hydrolysis. Maximum enzymatic activity occurred between 35 and 40 degrees C. The enzyme activity was not inhibited by heavy metals, EDTA, or NaN3. Another isolate from the mixed cultures, a Flavobacterium sp., used p-nitrophenol for growth and degraded it to nitrite. Nitrite was assimilated into the cells under conditions during which the nitrogen source was excluded from the minimal growth medium. The hybridization data showed that the DNAs from a Pseudomonas sp. and from the mixed culture had homology with the opd (organophosphate degradation) gene from a previously reported parathion-hydrolyzing bacterium, Flavobacterium sp. The use of the opd gene as a probe may accelerate progress toward understanding the complex interactions of soil microorganisms with parathions.     

Isolation of spontaneous mutant strains of Flavobacterium spp.

Flavobacterium sp. ATCC 27551 is prototrophic, streptomycin-resistant and contains plasmid DNA. Two strains of this Flavobacterium sp. with altered growth requirements and antibiotic sensitivity have been isolated. Unlike the parental strain, both isolates are sensitive to the antibiotic streptomycin. Isolate YE requires yeast extract supplementation of the medium and contains no plasmid DNA. Isolate AHC contains plasmid DNA and requires aspartic acid, histidine and cysteine for growth.