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1.
The application of the methodology Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is time-consuming and expensive. A definite interpretation,
furthermore, is not always derivable from the determined results. The reason for the leeway of interpretation is frequently
due to the imprecision and uncertainty of the ingoing data. An improved clearance of interpretation is to be expected by an
ecological evaluation of methodology with the support of fuzzy-sets. The influence of uncertainties of ingoing data on evaluation
results becomes transparent through a representation as fuzzy-sets. Thus, the interpretation of an uncertainty of assessment
results is reduced in comparison to usual procedures for environmental LCA thus far. Time and cost saving is to be expected
from the fact that the extensive quantification of many energy and mass flows is replaced by a fuzzy-set supported iteration
loop, with which only the exact quantification of a few important flows is necessary. 相似文献
2.
Gregory A. Norris 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(2):118-120
The private sector decision making situations which LCA addresses mustalso eventually take theeconomic consequences of alternative products or product designs into account. However, neither the internal nor external economic
aspects of the decisions are within the scope of developed LCA methodology, nor are they properly addressed by existing LCA
tools. This traditional separation of life cycle environmental assessment from economic analysis has limited the influence
and relevance of LCA for decision-making, and left uncharacterized the important relationships and trade-offs between the
economic and life cycle environmental performance of alternative product design decision scenarios. Still standard methods
of LCA can and have been tightly, logically, and practically integrated with standard methods for cost accounting, life cycle
cost analysis, and scenario-based economic risk modeling. The result is an ability to take both economic and environmental
performance — and their tradeoff relationships — into account in product/process design decision making. 相似文献
3.
Shirish Sangle P. Ram Babu P. Khanna 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(4):221-228
A new method for identification of weights of environmental issues is suggested using the societal approach in the context
of a weighting step in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The weights assigned by different economic groups to eleven environmental
issues is obtained through analysis of linguistically stated relative rankings using a fuzzy partial ordering method. The
system identification technique based on neural networks is used to identify logical connective in the stated relative rankings
and this obviated the inconsistency problem normally encountered in the analysis of relative preference statements. The transitive
property of a matrix of relative weights is used to minimise the number of responses to be elicited from a respondent. 相似文献
4.
Bo Weidema 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(4):237-240
Different lists of application areas for life cycle assessment are reviewed together with some suggestions for a typology
of these application areas. It is concluded that the scope of a life cycle assessment is determined by the area of validity
of the decision with respect to time, space, and interest groups affected. On this basis, six application areas are distinguished.
It is further concluded that the application area has limited influence on the inventory analysis and impact assessment phases,
although these may be influenced significantly by the decision-maker and the complexity of the trade-offs between the involved
environmental impacts. The reporting format for a life cycle assessment depends on the socio-economic importance of the decision,
the intended audience, and the time available for decision making. 相似文献
5.
Rita C. Schenck 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(2):114-117
Background The primary purpose of environmental assessment is to protect biological systems. Data collected over the last several decades
indicates that the greatest impacts on biological resources derive from physical changes in land use. However, to date there
is no consensus on indicators of land use that could be applicable worldwide at all scales. This has hampered the assessment
of land use in the context of LCA.
Objectives The Institute for Environmental Research and Education and its partner Defenders of Wildlife have begun an effort to develop
the necessary consensus.
Methods In July 2000, they held a workshop attended by a diverse group of interested parties and experts to develop a preliminary
list of life cycle indicators for land use impacts.
Results Their preliminary list of impact indicators includes: protection of priority habitats/species; soil characteristics: soil
health; proximity to & protection of high priority vegetative communities; interface between water and terrestrial habitats/buffer
zones; assimilative capacity of water and land; hydrological function; percent coverage of invasive species within protected
areas; road density; percent native-dominated vegetation; restoration of native vegetation; adoption of Best Management Practices
linked to biodiversity objectives; distribution (patchiness; evenness, etc.); and connectivity of native habitat.
Conclusion The list of indicators conforms well to other efforts in developing indicators. There appears to be convergence among experts
in the field and in related fields on the appropriate things to measure.
Future Prospects These indicators are currently being tested in the United States. Further workshops and testing is planned towards developing
internationally recognized indicators for land use. 相似文献
6.
Sabrina Spatari Michael Betz Harald Florin Martin Baitz Michael Faltenbacher 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(2):81-84
The growing availability of software tools has increased the speed of generating LCA studies. Databases and visual tools for
constructing material balance modules greatly facilitate the process of analyzing the environmental aspects of product systems
over their life cycle. A robust software tool, containing a large LCI dataset and functions for performing LCIA and sensitivity
analysis will allow companies and LCA practitioners to conduct systems analyses efficiently and reliably. This paper discusses
how the GaBi 3 software tool can be used to perform LCA and Life Cycle Engineering (LCE), a methodology that combines life
cycle economic, environmental, and technology assessment. The paper highlights important attributes of LCA software tools,
including high quality, well-documented data, transparency in modeling, and data analysis functionality. An example of a regional
power grid mix model is used to illustrate the versatility of GaBi 3. 相似文献
7.
Bo P. Weidema Niels Frees Anne-Merete Nielsen 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(1):48-56
Marginal technologies are defined as the technologies actually affected by the small changes in demand typically studied in
prospective, comparative life cycle assessments. Using data on marginal technologies thus give the best reflection of the
actual consequences of a decision. Furthermore, data on marginal technologies are easier to collect, more precise, and more
stable in time than data on average technologies. A 5-step procedure is suggested to identify the marginal technologies. The
step-wise procedure first clarifies the situation in which the marginal should apply, and then identifies what specific technology
is marginal in this situation. The procedure is illustrated in two examples: European electricity production and pulp and
paper production. 相似文献
8.
Mathias Borg Jacob Paulsen Wolfram Trinius 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(4):219-230
Application and development of the LCA methodology to the context of the building sector makes several building specific considerations
necessary, as some key characteristics of products in the building sector differ considerably from those of other industrial
sectors. The largest difference is that the service life of a building can stretch over centuries, rather than decades or
years as seen for consumer products. The result of the long service life is that it is difficult to obtain accurate data and
to make relevant assumptions about future conditions regarding, for example, recycling. These problems have implications on
the issue of allocation in the building sector, in the way that several allocation procedures ascribe environmental loads
to users of recycled or reused products and materials in the future which are unknown today. The long service life for buildings,
building materials and building components, is associated with the introduced concept of a virtual parallel time perspective
proposed here, which basically substitutes historical and future processes and values with current data. Further, the production
and refining of raw material as a parallel to upgrading of recycled material, normally contains several intermediate products.
A suggestion is given for how to determine the comparability of intermediate materials. The suggested method for allocation
presented is based on three basic assumptions: (1) If environmental loads are to be allocated to a succeeding product life
cycle, the studied actual life cycle has to take responsibility for upgrading of the residual material into secondary resources.
(2) Material characteristics and design of products are important factors to estimate the recyclable amount of the material.
Therefore, a design factor is suggested using information for inherent material properties combined with information of the
product context at the building level. (3) The quality reduction between the materials in two following product life cycles
is indicated as the ratio between the market value for the material in the products. The presented method can be a good alternative
for handling the problem of open-loop recycling allocation in the context of the building sector if a consensus for the use
of the fictive parallel time perspective and the use of the design factor can be established. This as the use of the time
perspective and design factor is crucial to be able to deal with the problem of long service lives for buildings and building
materials and the specific characteristics of the same building materials and components built into different building contexts. 相似文献
9.
Linear Programming (LP) is a powerful mathematical technique that can be used as a tool in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). In
the Inventory and Impact Assessment phases, in addition to calculating the environmental impacts and burdens, it can be used
for solving the problem of allocation in multiple-output systems. In the Improvement Assessment phase, it provides a systematic
approach to identifying possibilities for system improvements by optimising the system on different environmental objective
functions, defined as burdens or impacts. Ultimately, if the environmental impacts are aggregated to a single environmental
impact function in the Valuation phase, LP optimisation can identify the overall environmental optimum of the system. However,
the aggregation of impacts is not necessary: the system can be optimised on different environmental burdens or impacts simultaneously
by using Multiobjective LP. As a result, a range of environmental optima is found offering a number of alternative options
for system improvements and enabling the choice of the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO). If, in addition, economic
and social criteria are introduced in the model, LP can be used to identify the best compromise solution in a system with
conflicting objectives. This approach is illustrated by a real case study of the borate products system.
An erratum to this article is available at . 相似文献
10.
Marieke Gorrée Jeroen B. Guinée Gjalt Huppes Lauran van Oers 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2002,7(3):158-166
Linoleum is a floor covering consisting mainly of linseed oil, other vegetable oils, wood flour and limestone on a carrier
of jute. Forbo-Krommenie B.V. commissioned the Centre of Environmental Science (CML) to carry out an Environmental Life Cycle
Assessment for linoleum floors. The goal of this study was to assess the environmental performance of linoleum floors, indicating
possible options for improvement, and assessing the sensitivity of the results to methodological choices. The functional unit
was defined as: 2000 m2 linoleum produced in 1998, used in an office or public building over a period of 20 years. The method followed in this study
is based on a nearly final draft version of the LCA guide published by CML in corporation with many others, which is an update
of the guide on LCA of 1992.
From the contribution analysis, the main contributing processes became clear. In addition, the sensitivity analysis by scenarios
showed that the type of maintenance during use and the pigments used can have a large influence on the results. Major data
gaps of the study were capital goods and unknown chemicals. Sensitivity analysis also showed that these gaps can lead to an
underestimation. Based on this study, some options to improve the environmental performance of linoleum were formulated and
advice for further LCA studies on linoleum was given. 相似文献
11.
Zulina Zakaria Mohd Nasir Hassan Muhamad Awang 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(4):191-194
Conclusion In conclusion, LCA that is conducted and used appropriately is an indispensable tool to assist decision-makers in making an
informed decision about the environmental impacts of their activities, products or services. A global effort towards LCA use
should be encouraged and countries in the Asian/Pacific Regions should not be left out. LCA-related activities reported in
the symposium were described 相似文献
12.
Julien Matheys Wout Van Autenboer Jean-Marc Timmermans Joeri Van Mierlo Peter Van den Bossche Gaston Maggetto 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2007,12(3):191-196
Goal, Scope and Background This paper describes the influence of the choice of the functional unit on the results of an environmental assessment of different
battery technologies for electric and hybrid vehicles. Battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicles are considered as being
environmentally friendly. However, the batteries they use are sometimes said to be environmentally unfriendly. At the current
state of technology different battery types can be envisaged: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion
and sodium-nickel chloride. The environmental impacts described in this paper are based on a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach.
One of the first critical stages of LCA is the definition of an appropriate and specific functional unit for electric and
hybrid vehicle application. Most of the known LCA studies concerning batteries were performed while choosing different functional
units, although this choice can influence the final results. An adequate functional unit, allowing to compare battery technologies
in their real life vehicle application should be chosen.
The results of the LCA are important as they will be used as a decision support for the end-of-life vehicles directive 2000/53/EC
(Official Journal of the European Communities L269/24 2000). As a consequence, a thorough analysis is required to define an
appropriate functional unit for the assessment of batteries for electric vehicles. This paper discusses this issue and will
mainly focus on traction batteries for electric vehicles.
Main Features An overview of the different parameters to be considered in the definition of a functional unit to compare battery technologies
for battery electric vehicle application is described and discussed. An LCA study is performed for the most relevant potential
functional units. SimaPro 6 is used as a software tool and Eco-indicator 99 as an impact assessment method. The influence
of the different selected functional units on the results (Eco-indicator Points) is discussed. The environmental impact of
the different electric vehicle battery technologies is described. A sensitivity analysis illustrates the robustness of the
obtained results.
Results and Discussion Five main parameters are considered in each investigated functional unit: an equal depth of discharge is assumed, a relative
number of batteries required during the life of the vehicle is calculated, the energy losses in the battery and the additional
vehicle consumption due to the battery mass is included and the same lifetime distance target is taken into account. On the
basis of the energy content, battery mass, number of cycles and vehicle autonomy three suitable functional units are defined:
‘battery packs with an identical mass’, ‘battery packs with an identical energy content’ and ‘battery packs with an identical
one-charge range’.
The results show that the differences in the results between these three functional units are small and imply less variation
on the results than the other uncertainties inherent to LCA studies. On the other hand, the results obtained using other,
less adequate, functional units can be quite different.
Conclusions When performing an LCA study, it’s important to choose an appropriate functional unit. Most of the time, this choice is unambiguous.
However, sometimes this choice is more complicated when different correlated parameters have to be considered, as it is the
case for traction batteries. When using a realistic functional unit, the result is not influenced significantly by the choice
of one out of the three suitable functional units.
Additionally, the life cycle assessment allowed concluding that three electric vehicle battery technologies have a comparable
environmental impact: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride. Lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride have lower
environmental impacts than the three previously cited technologies when used in a typical battery electric vehicle application.
Recommendations and Perspectives The article describes the need to consider all relevant parameters for the choice of a functional unit for an electric vehicle
battery, as this choice can influence the conclusions. A more standardised method to define the functional unit could avoid
these differences and could make it possible to compare the results of different traction battery LCA studies more easily. 相似文献
13.
Günter Fleischer Karin Gerner Heiko Kunst Kerstin Lichtenvort Gerald Rebitzer 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(3):149-156
Intention, Goal and Scope: Dealing with data gaps, data asymmetries, and inconsistencies in life cycle inventories (LCI) is
a general prohlem in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies. An approach to deal with these difficulties is the simplification
of LCA. A methodology that lowers the requirements for data quality (accuracy) for process emissions within a simplified LCA
is introduced in this article. Background: Simplification is essential for applying LCA in the context of design for environment
(DfE). The tool euroMat is a comprehensive DfE software tool that is based on a specific, simplified LCA approach, the Iterative
Screening LCA (IS-LCA). Within the scope of the IS-LCA, there is a quantitative assessment of energy-related processes, as
well as a semi-quantitative assessment of non-energy related emissions which supplement each other. Objectives: The semi-quantitative
assessment, which is in the focus of this article, aims at lowering the requirements for the quality of non-energy related
emissions data through combined use of qualitative and quantitative inventory data. Methods: Potential environmental impacts
are assessed based on ABC-categories for qualities (harmfulness) of emissions and XYZ-categories for quantities of emitted
substances. Employing statistical methods assignment rules for the ABC/XYZ-categories were derived from literature data and
databases on emissions to air, water, and soil. Statistical tests as well as a DfE case study (comparing the materials aluminum
and carbon fiber reinforced epoxy for a lightweight container to be used in an aerospace application) were conducted in order
to evaluate the level of confidence and practicality of the proposed, simplified impact assessment. Results: Statistical and
technical consistency checks show that the method bears a high level of confidence. Results obtained by the simplified assessment
correlate to those of a detailed quantitative LCA. Conclusions: Therefore, the application of the ABC/XYZ-categories (together
with the cumulative energy demand) can be considered a practical and consistent approach for determining the environmental
significance of products when only incomplete emission data is available. Future Prospects: The statistical base of the method
is expanded continuously since it is an integral part of the DfE software tool euroMat, which is currently being further developed.
That should foster the application of the method. Outside DfE, the method should also be capable of facilitating simplified
LCAs in general. 相似文献
14.
Harald Neitzel 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1997,2(4):241-249
The present state of worldwide discussions of how to apply LCA in environmental labelling, taking into account the current
ISO 14 020 and ISO 14 024 works, is described. There is a consensus to use LCA as a tool for more scientific environmental
labelling. The examples presented verify some practical possibilities to realise this approach. As a background to different
stages of practical labelling, results from LCA studies are already used in the German “Blue Angel” scheme, e.g. for the definition
of the scope in one product category, for the priorisation of specific life cycle phases and criteria, as a basis to establish
a scoring system or to emphasise the importance of information on how to use environmentally sound products. Practical examples
are presented in detail for hand-drying systems, paper products, milk packages, household equipment, televisions and detergents.
Some future perspectives are mentioned.
Presentation at “The Second International Conference on EcoBalance - The New Stage of LCA as a Common Language”, Nov. 18,
19 and 20, 1996 Tsukuba, Japan 相似文献
15.
Thiel Christian Seppelt Ralf Müller-Pietralla Wolfgang Richter Otto 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(3):151-160
LCA is a system-wide assessment, and the LCIA phase is confronted with the difficulties of local and regional effects in a
number of impact categories. We integrate three different environmental techniques to demonstrate how these effects can be
addressed in an environmental assessment. The techniques are life cycle inventory, environmental fate models, and an ecological
impact assessment using fuzzy expert systems.
Results of the LCI are mass and energy flows. In the environmental fate modelling step these mass flows are transformed into
concentration and immission values by dispersion-reaction models. A generalised fuzzy expert system for the environmental
mechanisms compares calculated exposure with site specific buffering capacities and formulates a generalised dose-response
relationship. This generalised fuzzy expert system is used as a template for the assessment of local and regional environmental
impacts. An application of this integrated approach is shown for a practical problem: production of magnesium car components.
The environmental fate of nitrogen oxides which are released due to the major combustion source within that production system
is simulated. Fuzzy expert models for crop damage, soil acidification and eutrophication determine the possible environmental
impact of the immited nitrogen oxides.
The important methodological extension of this integrated approach is a regionalised impact assessment depending on the spatial
distribution of environmental characteristics. 相似文献
16.
On the limitations of life cycle assessment and environmental systems analysis tools in general 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Göran Finnveden 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2000,5(4):229-238
The potential and limitations of life cycle assessment and environmental systems analysis tools in general are evaluated.
More specifically this is done by exploring the limits of what can be shown by LCA and other tools. This is done from several
perspectives. First, experiences from current LCAs and methodology discussions are used including a discussion on the type
of impacts typically included, quality of inventory data, methodological choices in relation to time aspects, allocation,
characterisation and weighting methods and uncertainties in describing the real world. Second, conclusions from the theory
of science are practised. It is concluded that it can in general not be shown that one product is environmentally preferable
to another one, even if this happens to be the case. This conclusion has important policy implications. If policy changes
require that it must be shown that one product is more (or less) environmentally preferable before any action can be taken,
then it is likely that no action is ever going to take place. If we want changes to be made, decisions must be taken on a
less rigid basis. It is expected that in this decision making process, LCA can be a useful input. Since it is the only tool
that can be used for product comparisons over the whole life cycle, it can not be replaced by any other tool and should be
used. Increased harmonisation of LCA methodology may increase the acceptability of chosen methods and increase the usefulness
of the tool. 相似文献
17.
Bruno Notarnicola Gjalt Huppes Nico W. van den Berg 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(5):289-300
LCA aims to help direct decisions in an environmentally sustainable direction. It indicates the environmental effects of choices
and evaluates these against this background. Approaches to evaluation in LCA differ substantially, related to the way of modelling
environmental effects and to the way these effects are combined into an overall judgement on alternative options. Several
approaches are now operational, which are linked to different paradigms in decision making. It is shown that the choice of
paradigm is quite decisive on the outcome of the analysis. Also within similar paradigms, different methods now operational
may lead to different outcomes. These latter differences may be alleviated more easily than those related to paradigmatic
choices, as they are partly a matter of refinement, and they partly result from legitimate differences in subjective priorities.
The more basic paradigmatic differences can hardly be bridged. The practical relevancy of the subject is proven by applying
different operational methods to one case, showing widely differing outcomes. The paradigm behind evaluating environmental
effects is either values based, directly or through policy decisions, or economics based, as individual preferences measured
in the monetary terms of willingness-to-pay. Accordingly, the different methods are “policy-oriented” or “monetary”. It may
be doubted if the differences between these can be overcome in standardisation. 相似文献
18.
Matthias Finkbeiner Konrad Saur Peter Eyerer Yasunari Matsuno Atsushi Inaba 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1999,4(3):127-132
Sustainable development can only be achieved if industry adoptsboth product related and organisation related environmental management tools, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Environmental
Management Systems (EMS). In Japan, EMS (ISO 14001) is more widely applied than LCA (ISO 14040). Therefore,one means by which Japanese industries could be motivated to adopt and use LCA is to relate LCA-activities to the policies and
instruments of ISO 14001. The potential of such a comprehensive approach was analysed by a survey of 270 Japanese enterprises
(response rate 45%). The results indicate that 19% of the responding representatives had responsibilities for both LCA and
EMS, while the remaining only work in one of both fields. A statement in the company’s/ plant’s Environmental Policy of ISO
14001, stating that LCA is to be used as part of the EMS, was found in 42% of all companies. A surprising number (39%) either
already use, or plan to use, LCA and EMS as combinated/integrated tools. A strong argument for the establishment of a comprehensive
approach can be seen in the perception of the usefulness of LCA, which was rated significantly higher in companies that acknowledged
the complementary potential of LCA and EMS. 相似文献
19.
Joan Rieradevall Xavier Domènech Pere Fullana 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1997,2(3):141-144
A case study of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) is performed concerning the treatment of household solid wastes in a landfill.
The stages considered in this LCA study are: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis and impact assessment. The data
of the inventory include the consumption of raw materials and energy through the transport of wastes and the management of
landfill, and the corresponding emissions to the environment. Abiotic resource depletion, global warming, acidification, eutrophication
and human toxicological impacts have been considered as impact categories for the impact assessment phase of the LCA. A comparison
of the environmental impact of the landfilling with and without energy recovery is carried out.
Members of the Spanish Association for LCA Development (APRODACV) 相似文献
20.
ISO 14041 requires that allocation by physical causality must reflect the quantitative changes in product outputs or functions
and will not necessarily be in proportion to simple physical measure such as mass. This paper examines the instances where
physical causality can be represented by mass. However, it also goes further than ISO to demonstrate that the type of causality
in the system is not necessarily always the same and can change depending on the way the system is operated. Whole system
modelling and the marginal allocation approach are used to identify the correct type of causality for different operating
states of the system and the corresponding changes in the environmental burdens. This is generally not possible with the other
allocation methods, also examined in this paper. Both process- and product-related burdens are considered and the approach
is illustrated by a reference to an existing system producing five boron co-products 相似文献