Direct and indirect effects of predators on the dominant invertebrates of two freshwater littoral communities

Summary Two congeneric damselfly species, Enallagma traviatum and E. aspersum, dominate the littoral macroinvertebrates of Bays Mountain Lake and of the adjacent fish-free Ecology Pond, respectively (northeastern Tennessee, USA). Extending previous experimental studies, we test seven hypotheses concerning the role of fish (bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus) and larvaldragonfly (Anax junius) predation, competitive effects on damselflies, and the interaction between competition and predation, in determining invertebrate dominance in these communities. Three types of experiments were conducted: an enclosure experiment within Ecology Pond, an outdoor replicated tub experiment, and a laboratory behavior experiment. The in-situ enclosure experiment showed that E. traviatum larvae were more susceptible to Anax predation than were E. aspersum larvae; a tendency toward greater vulnerability to fish of E. aspersum compared with E. traviatum was not statistically significant. The outdoor tub experiment confirmed both of these trends with statistically significant results. In the tubs, both predators inhibited feeding of both zygopterans (as indicated by reduced fecal mass), particularly for E. aspersum in the presence of fish. This effect appears to have been primarily indirect, mediated through exploitation of the zooplankton. We also detected competitive effects of E. traviatum on E. aspersum: E. traviatum reduced the emergence and increased the exposure above the substrate of E. aspersum. In the absence of predators, E. traviatum inhibited feeding of E. aspersum via interference. In the laboratory behavior experiment, predators inhibited crawling by E. aspersum. E. aspersum was more exposed than was E. traviatum; it swam and crawled more than did E. traviatum, considerably increasing these movements at night. Over all, E. traviatum consistently appeared to be the more cryptic of the two species, and E. aspersum appeared to be much more active. Our results suggest an explanation for the clear difference in structure between communities like Bays Mountain Lake and Ecology Pond: predaceous fish eliminate large invertebrate predators and shift the community toward cryptic forms at relatively low densities, reflecting the effects of both predation and exploitation competition. In the absence of fish, large invertebrate predators are less able to deplete littoral invertebrates but may favor the more active forms, perhaps because these are better able to avoid invertebrate predators.     

Interactions potentially affecting the seasonal abundance of selected aquatic invertebrates in a rice field habitat

Variables associated with the seasonal abundance of members of a prey complex consisting of Chironomidae, Corixidae and Crustacea, and of a predator guild including Belostomatidae, Dytiscidae, Hydrophilidae and Notonectidae sampled from California rice fields were evaluated by multiple regression analysis. Variables included water temperature, rice plant stand and potential predator-prey interactions. Regression equations using water temperature and rice plant stand as independent variables described the seasonal abundance of both the prey complex (F = 5.619; P = 0.025) and the predator guild (F = 9.037; P = 0.005). Predator-prey interactions further modified many of the seasonal patterns of the organisms observed.     

Complex effects of a kairomone of Chaoborus and an insecticide on Daphnia pulex

Daphnia pulex were reared in Chaoborus-conditioned water containingthe insecticide carbaryl, and their life history parametersand morphologies were investigated. The insecticide inhibitedthe animals' growth and reproduction and delayed their maturationtime more intensely in the chaoborus-conditioned water thanin the control Chaoborus-free water, indicating that a kairomoneof Chaoborus made the Daphnia more sensitive to the insecticide.The Chaoborus conditioned water induced neckteeth formationof D.pulex in instars 1–2 and elongated the intermoultingperiod of juveniles. The moulting to the spined morphs and elongationin duration of juvenile stages seemed to increase the risk ofdamage from the insecticide. The potential population growthrate of D.pulex in treatments was estimated as a possible fitnessindicator of the animals. It was reduced synergistically bythe kairomone of Chaoborus and the insecticide. Some individualskept neckteeth until the third or fourth instar stage when theywere exposed to sublethal concentrations of the insecticidein the Chaoborus-conditioned water. This was considered as aresult of synergistic effects of both the kairomone and theinsecticide. Insecticides may be a factor inducing further developmentof protuberant structures in cyclomorphic Daphnia in naturalwater bodies.     

Plant-mediated indirect effects of climate change on an insect herbivore

Anthropogenic climate change is a substantial challenge to biodiversity conservation, exerting direct effects on plants and animals alike. Herbivores may be additionally affected by indirect effects, mediated through, for instance, climate change-induced alterations in host-plant quality. Thus, climate change may pronouncedly impact long-evolved plant-animal interactions, but our knowledge is still in its infancy, particularly with regard to the combined effects of temperature and water availability. We here investigate the effects of simulated climate change, considering variation in both temperature and water availability, on (1) host-plant chemistry, (2) herbivore oviposition and larval feeding preference, and (3) larval and adult performance. As study system, we used the butterfly Pieris napi (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) and its host plant Sinapis alba (Brassicacae). Host-plant chemistry was affected by simulated climate change, with higher temperatures increasing the carbon-nitrogen ratio and concentrations of glucosinolates, while drought stress led to reduced glucosinolate concentrations. Both egg-laying females and larvae preferred plants with the highest concentrations of the glucosinolate glucosinalbin, potentially acting as oviposition and feeding stimulus. Herbivore performance was positively affected by plants grown at control temperatures or under drought stress and thus reduced glucosinolate concentrations. Hence, P. napi was not able to select the most profitable host. Our study indicates that (1) climate-induced changes in plant chemistry may exert indirect effects on herbivores, (2) effects of climate change will depend on the magnitude of change in specific abiotic parameters and their interactions, whereby positive (e.g. drought) and negative (e.g. temperature) effects may even cancel out each other, and (3) changes in critical chemical cues may diminish host-plant detectability and thereby result in reduced realised fecundity. We thus highlight the important role of temperature and water availability on plant chemistry, which may change interactions between insects and plants.     

Study of the toxic effects of an insecticide and copper sulphate on chicken embryos

The toxic effects of the BI 58 EC insecticide (38% dimethoate) applied alone or in combination with copper sulphate were studied on chicken embryo in the early phase of development. The test materials were injected in 0.1-0.1 ml volume into the air chamber of eggs on the first day of incubation. Subsequently, on days 2 and 3 of incubation permanent preparations were made from the embryo in order to study the early developmental stage. Embryos fixed on slides and stained with osmium tetroxide solution were studied under light microscope. According to the result of the statistical evaluation, to sum up, we can say that the simultaneous administration of the test materials did not result in a significant increase in the embryo mortality, but after the combined administration the rate of embryonic mortality markedly increased. As a result of combined administrations the developmental anomalies included the apperance of a blood ring, poor development or absence of somites, the retarted development of the vascular system, the head and the body, irregular differentiation of the brain vesicles. Summarising the findings, it can be established that the insecticide treatment combined with heavy metal resulted in enhanced embryotoxicity in the case of both combinations, which was primarily manifested in an increased embryonic mortality rate.     

Impact of different meadow mowing techniques on field invertebrates

Low‐input meadows are now recognized for their high biodiversity value and form an integral element of many agri‐environmental schemes in Europe. Meadow mowing techniques, however, have become highly mechanized in recent decades and scientific knowledge on the direct impacts of these techniques on field fauna is based on very few and often poorly replicated studies. Yet these studies, despite their limitations, suggest that such impacts can be considerable. With a view to providing a more comprehensive experimental assessment, we evaluated the direct impacts of four different mowing techniques (hand motor mower with cutter bar, rotary mower cut at 9 cm and rotary mower cut at 6 cm with and without a conditioner) on wax invertebrate models and real caterpillars. The size of the organisms, their microhabitat, the tractor wheel effect and the cutting height were also investigated as factors that could potentially affect mowing‐caused mortality. Rotary mowers were found to be more damaging than motor bar mowers on caterpillars (37% vs. 20%), but only on one type of invertebrate wax‐model. Conditioners more than doubled damage to all wax‐models in the vegetation (in average from 11% to 30%) and increased caterpillar mortality from 38% to 69%. Larger organisms were more vulnerable than smaller organisms and ground organisms were strongly impacted by tractor wheels. While conditioner should not be used in meadows where conservation of the inhabiting fauna is of concern, we also recognize that there is no damage‐free mowing technique. We therefore advocate the importance of leaving uncut areas as a refuge for invertebrates.     

Shading effects of free-floating plants on drainage-ditch invertebrates

In small, lentic ecosystems in agricultural areas, eutrophication often results in excessive growth of small, free-floating plants. A dense layer of plants on the water surface changes the underwater light climate drastically and in turn leads to hypoxic or even anoxic conditions. Knowledge of the effects on macroinvertebrates of reduced light conditions and oxygen stress as result of eutrophication is limited. We thus examined in a field situation the influence of an unpredictable, 10-day period of low oxygen availability as a result of poor underwater light conditions. In a before–after control–impact design, the underwater light climate and dissolved oxygen concentration of ditch sections were manipulated, and the macroinvertebrate assemblage composition was recorded during the 4 weeks before and after treatment. A poor underwater light climate in combination with normoxic conditions did not affect the invertebrate assemblage composition, but the combination of low-light intensity and anoxic conditions did alter it. Interestingly, these changes were not apparent directly after treatment but developed in the weeks following, indicating that although the invertebrates could cope with a shading-induced period of hypoxia, costs were associated with the event over a longer time period.     

三种稻田常见螯蜂对半翅目害虫的寄主偏好性及控害作用

【目的】探明两色食虱螯蜂Echthrodelphax fairchildii、黄腿双距螯蜂Gonatopus flavifemur和稻虱红单节螯蜂Haplogonatopus apicalis 3种稻田常见螯蜂对半翅目害虫的寄主偏好性及控害作用。【方法】在非选择条件下,分别以褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens、白背飞虱Sogatella furcifera、灰飞虱Laodelphax striatellus、黑尾叶蝉Nephotettix cincticeps和伪褐飞虱Nilaparvata muiri为寄主,观察两色食虱螯蜂、黄腿双距螯蜂和稻虱红单节螯蜂的取食、寄生以及子代生长发育情况;并在选择条件下观察3种螯蜂对稻飞虱的寄主选择性,评价螯蜂的寄主偏好性。根据以上试验,评出3种螯蜂各自的适宜寄主;并选择适宜寄主测定3种螯蜂的寿命、取食量和寄生量,评价其控害作用。【结果】两色食虱螯蜂可取食和寄生褐飞虱、灰飞虱、白背飞虱和伪褐飞虱,以前3种为两色食虱螯蜂的适宜寄主,伪褐飞虱次之;黑尾叶蝉为其非取食、寄生寄主。黄腿双距螯蜂可取食和寄生4种飞虱：褐飞虱和灰飞虱适合性较高,白背飞虱次之,伪褐飞虱最差。黑尾叶蝉可为黄腿双距螯蜂的取食寄主,但非寄生寄主。稻虱红单节螯蜂以白背飞虱为最适寄主,灰飞虱次之;其他3种寄主仅能被稻虱红单节螯蜂取食,不能被成功寄生。在适宜寄主上,稻虱红单节螯蜂雌虫的寿命、总取食和寄生合计量均最高,两色食虱螯蜂的最低,黄腿双距螯蜂的居中;3种螯蜂日均取食量和寄生量的消长动态波动幅度不大。【结论】两色食虱螯蜂偏好寄生褐飞虱、灰飞虱和白背飞虱,控害作用相对最弱;黄腿双距螯蜂偏好寄生褐飞虱和灰飞虱,控害作用居中;稻虱红单节螯蜂偏好寄生白背飞虱,控害作用最强。     

Recovery of Triatoma infestans populations after insecticide application: an experimental field study

The capacity of populations of Triatoma infestans (Klug) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) to survive and recover was assessed after application of insecticide (gamma-HCH at a rate of 0.5 g a.i./m2) at different seasons. T. infestans populations were maintained in experimental chicken houses under natural climatic conditions in a region of Argentina endemic for Chagas disease transmitted by these bugs. Based on previous studies of T. infestans populations in these habitats, each experimental group was set up with a total of 626 T. infestans, comprising 390 eggs, 204 nymphs of particular stages, fourteen male and eighteen female adults. The chicken houses were dismantled and rebuilt at monthly intervals to study the vector population changes over a period of 33 months. When the insecticide was applied during winter, spring or summer, populations of T. infestans recovered to untreated or precontrol levels during the next reproductive season (i.e. during the hot season, October-March). In contrast, populations treated during autumn (March) remained at very low densities for 2 years and then increased rapidly to surpass the untreated populations. All populations of the bugs fell to very low numbers (sometimes less than twenty individuals) after gamma-HCH applications, but none was driven to extinction. In all cases, the density of surviving populations was independent of their density before treatment. The fact that all treated populations recovered within 1-3 years, to at least the density of untreated populations, shows the high reproductive potential of T. infestans to recover from very low population densities. Moreover, the additive effect of climatic-induced mortality and insecticide-induced mortality is only apparent when insecticides are applied just before the onset of the cold winter months during which reproductive rates are at their lowest.     

Influence of Chaoborus density on the effects of an insecticide on zooplankton communities in ponds

Zooplankton communities with a high or low density of Chaoborus larvae were established in outdoor concrete ponds, to which a carbamate insecticide, carbaryl, was applied at 0.1 or 0.5 mg l⁻¹. The lower concentration of the chemical was harmful only to Cladocera. The higher concentration damaged Chaoborus, Copepoda, and some rotifer species, as well as Cladocera. In the ponds with a low density of Chaoborus, chemical application altered the cladoceran community from dominance by Daphnia to that by Bosmina and Moina. In the ponds with a high density of Chaoborus, Chaoborus excluded cladocerans from the zooplankton community presumably by predation, and supported the dominance of rotifers. Cladocera did not recover after application of the chemical, even when Chaoborus was eliminated by the higher concentration of chemical. The relatively rapid recovery of Chaoborus seemed to interrupt the recovery of Cladocera.     

Differential effects of nitrogenous fertilizers on methane-consuming microbes in rice field and forest soils

The impact of environmental perturbation (e.g., nitrogenous fertilizers) on the dynamics of methane fluxes from soils and wetland systems is poorly understood. Results of fertilizer studies are often contradictory, even within similar ecosystems. In the present study the hypothesis of whether these contradictory results may be explained by the composition of the methane-consuming microbial community and hence whether methanotrophic diversity affects methane fluxes was investigated. To this end, rice field and forest soils were incubated in microcosms and supplemented with different nitrogenous fertilizers and methane concentrations. By labeling the methane with 13C, diversity and function could be coupled by analyses of phospholipid-derived fatty acids (PLFA) extracted from the soils at different time points during incubation. In both rice field and forest soils, the activity as well as the growth rate of methane-consuming bacteria was affected differentially. For type I methanotrophs, fertilizer application stimulated the consumption of methane and the subsequent growth, while type II methanotrophs were generally inhibited. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses of the pmoA gene supported the PLFA results. Multivariate analyses of stable-isotope-probing PLFA profiles indicated that in forest and rice field soils, Methylocystis (type II) species were affected by fertilization. The type I methanotrophs active in forest soils (Methylomicrobium/Methylosarcina related) differed from the active species in rice field soils (Methylobacter/Methylomonas related). Our results provide a case example showing that microbial community structure indeed matters, especially when assessing and predicting the impact of environmental change on biodiversity loss and ecosystem functioning.     

Direct and indirect effects of light pollution on the performance of an herbivorous insect

Light pollution is a global disturbance with resounding impacts on a wide variety of organisms, but our understanding of these impacts is restricted to relatively few higher vertebrate species. We tested the direct effects of light pollution on herbivore performance as well as indirect effects mediated by host plant quality. We found that artificial light from streetlights alters plant toughness. Additionally, we found evidence of both direct and indirect effects of light pollution on the performance of an herbivorous insect, which indicates that streetlights can have cascading impacts on multiple trophic levels. Our novel findings suggest that light pollution can alter plant-insect interactions and thus may have important community-wide consequences.     

化感作用水稻对无芒稗及相关田间杂草的抑制作用评价

对从500份水稻种质资源中用差时播种共培法的改进方法初步筛选出10份水稻化感抑稗材料进行了田间化感抑草评价研究.结果表明,在直播条件下,化感材料谷梅2号、吓一跳、鸡早籼、赣早籼和商糯1号等对无芒稗的抑制作用显著优于水稻无化感作用材料秀水63和春江11.化感材料Milyang54对田间总量杂草的抑制作用最强.在移栽条件下,化感材料谷梅2号、青困2号、吓一跳和鸡早籼对无芒稗的抑制作用与无化感作用材料秀水63和春江11差异及显著性水平.水稻材料间部分农艺性状差异及显著性水平,化感材料吓一跳和鸡早籼的株高较高,分蘖力较强,但顶三叶叶面积较小.     

Negative indirect effects of an avian insectivore on the fruit set of an insect-pollinated herb

Though an abundance of research has focused on direct interactions between birds and plants, relatively few studies have reported on indirect interactions. Of those reports, all have focused on positive indirect effects of birds on plants through predation of plant natural enemies. We conducted an observational study along the Middle Rio Grande in New Mexico to determine if avian aerial insectivores had a negative, indirect impact on insect-pollinated plants through predation of insect pollinators. We found considerable taxonomic overlap, at the order and family level, between insects visiting sweet clover ( Melilotus officinalis ) and those eaten by cliff swallows ( Hirundo pyrrhonota ). We found a significant negative relationship between proximity of sweet clover to cliff swallow breeding colonies and sweet clover fruit set during the cliff swallow nestling period. The apparent effect of cliff swallows was strongest within 200 m of breeding colonies (approximately 50% reduction in fruit set) and decreased nonlinearly to a distance of approximately 400 m. Finally, we found that the clover fruit set gradient disappeared after the nestling period, when chicks had fledged and the colony was abandoned.     

Edge effects and tropical forest canopy invertebrates

The term edge effect can be used to encompass a wide range of both biotic and abiotic trends associated with boundaries between adjacent habitat types, whether these be natural or anthropogenic. Edge effects have been shown to represent significant forces affecting both faunal and floral assemblages in fragmented ecosystems. Specific studies of faunal assemblages associated with habitat edges have revealed trends at all levels of biological organisation from individuals to communities.Studies of edge effects on invertebrates in tropical forests have been relatively scarce. In this paper we review the nature and organisation of edge effects, focusing upon the processes which may lead to detrimental consequences for both forest canopy invertebrates and the forests themselves. We present as a case study data illustrating the very large amount of variance (over 50%) in community structure that is predicted simply by abiotic (microclimatic) variables in both a tropical and a temperate forest edge. We summarise major features of edge effects amongst forest invertebrates, stress the inter-relatedness of edge and canopy biology, and present an agenda for study of the canopy as an edge.     

Quantifying direct and indirect effects of fungicide on an old-field plant community: an experimental null-community approach

Environmental perturbations can alter the composition of plant communities, either directly, by altering growth of some species more than others, or indirectly, by altering the strength of interspecific interactions among species. The relative importance of direct and indirect effects is not at all well known. We used an experimental approach to quantifying direct and indirect effects of fungicide on the composition of a plant community. To separate the direct and indirect impacts of fungicide we grew plant species in monoculture and mixed communities, and with and without the systemic fungicide benomyl. We predicted that direct effects of fungicide would be important at low but not high nutrient availability, while indirect effects would be more important at high nutrient availability. After 3 years there was little impact of fungicide on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal colonization, and on soil microbial community composition assessed as the relative abundance of different phospholipid fatty acids. Like fertilizer, fungicide increased plant biomass. However, in contrast to fertilizer, this did not result in a decline in species evenness. Although not significant, the direct effects of fungicide tended to oppose the indirect effects of both fungicide and interspecific interactions on plant community composition. Experiments relying on fungicide treatments must be interpreted extremely cautiously, because the impact of fungicide is potentially the integrated response of plants to multiple factors, including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, pathogenic and saprophytic fungi, and nutrient inputs.     

Scale-dependent effects of fine sediments on temperate headwater invertebrates

1. Anthropogenic activities can increase fine sediment supply to streams over multiple spatial and temporal extents. Identifying the processes responsible, and the scale at which any effects on stream organisms become evident, are key management needs, but appropriately scaled surveys are surprisingly few. 2. We surveyed macroinvertebrates and superficial fine sediments at two spatial resolutions (reach‐ and patch‐scale) in tributaries of the River Usk, a temperate, montane catchment in rural Wales (U.K.). Land use, habitat and geomorphological character were measured on‐site or derived from an existing database (=Fluvial Audit). We aimed to identify: (i) how in‐stream sediments varied with land use and associated geomorphology; (ii) likely consequences for macroinvertebrates and (iii) any scale‐dependence in relationships between macroinvertebrates and sediment character. 3. At both the reach‐ and patch‐scales, bed cover by fine sediment was related directly to the extent of eroding banks 500 m upstream. In turn, sedimentation and bank erosion were negatively correlated with catchment or riparian woodland extent. 4. At the reach scale, macroinvertebrate composition varied with catchment land use and stream chemistry, with richness declining as rough grazing or woodland was replaced by improved grassland. There was no response to deposited sediment except for weak increase in the relative abundance of oligochaetes. 5. By contrast, at the patch scale, fine sediments were accompanied by pronounced changes in invertebrate composition, and we ranked the 27 most common taxa according to their apparent sediment tolerance. General estimating equations showed that total and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera richness decreased significantly by 20% and 25% at the most sediment impacted sites (30% cover) by comparison with sediment‐free sites. 6. We conclude that sediment deposition in the upper Usk system mostly reflects local bank erosion, with riparian woodland likely to mediate this process through bank stability. Fine sediment release had marked ecological effects, but these were detectable only at patch‐to‐patch scales. We suggest that investigation of localized sediment release in streams will benefit from scale‐dependent or scale‐specific sampling, and some effects could go undetected unless sample resolution is selected carefully.     

选择性农药对稻田蜘蛛群落的影响

通过对施用混灭威药剂后３－２３天的稻田群落进行分析。结果表明,施药后稻田群落的物种丰富度、多样性、均匀性降低,优势度、优势集中性、蛛、虱比升高,并且不同用药量下,蛛虱比的升降情况不同,选择性药剂对蜘蛛亚群落的垂直生态２位有影响,但对水平生态位影响不大。