基于ISO 14046的工业产品水足迹评价研究——以电缆为例

水足迹国际标准(ISO 14046)于2014年发布,基于生命周期评价(LCA)的思想,水足迹被定义为量化与水相关潜在环境影响的指标。在ISO14046的原则、要求和方法学框架基础上,介绍了工业产品水足迹的计算和评价方法,并以铜电缆和铝合金电缆为例进行研究,分别评价了两类电缆生命周期过程产生的与水相关环境影响。与水足迹网络(WFN)的方法侧重于计算生产产品所需要的水资源总量不同,ISO的方法更关注于产品全生命周期过程的环境影响评价。案例研究表明:铜电缆生命周期全过程耗水量与铝合金电缆相比少24.8%,水短缺足迹相比则少97.9%。这是因为铜电缆生产地江苏的水压力指数(WSI)小于铝合金电缆生产地河北的WSI。由此,在江苏地区生产电缆使用的水资源对当地水环境压力造成的影响远小于在河北地区生产电缆造成的影响。采用科学合理的水足迹评价方法,量化工业产品全生命周期带来的环境影响,能为我国实现工业布局的合理规划和水资源的可持续利用提供科学依据。     

农产品水足迹研究进展

水是人类生产生活的重要资源,科学合理地评价人类活动对水资源的影响是实现水资源可持续利用的重要保障.水足迹概念的提出创新性地将人类活动消耗的水资源区分为绿水、蓝水和灰水,拓展了水资源可持续利用的评价思路.基于虚拟水(VW)的水足迹理论和基于生命周期(LCA)的水足迹理论将水质与水量的概念相结合,成为了农业水资源管理研究的热点内容.基于VW的水足迹理论主要包括绿水足迹、蓝水足迹和灰水足迹的计算,以及水环境可持续性评价,而基于LCA的水足迹理论体现了水资源的消耗和污染及其对环境造成的综合影响.本文详细介绍了这两种水足迹理论的计算方法与环境可持续评价的研究进展,对比分析两种水足迹理论在描述农产品生产用水及其环境影响方面的差异性,并对其研究前景进行了展望.     

工业水足迹评价与应用

大规模的工业生产不但消耗了大量的水资源,同时产生了大量的工业废水,这是造成和加剧全球或区域水资源危机和水环境问题最重要的原因之一。对工业生产过程的水资源综合影响进行科学有效评估是目前资源环境管理领域研究的重要问题之一,是采取有效措施、提升工业生产的水资源利用效率和管理水平的重要前提和基础。以发展和完善工业生产过程的水资源综合影响的评价系统和方法体系为目标,基于水足迹理论,提出了工业水足迹的概念,即用以测量由某一产品、工业企业、行业或区域的工业生产过程引发的水资源利用增量的一个多维指标。以此概念为理论基础,进而首先分析了工业水足迹的内涵,包括直接工业水足迹与间接工业水足迹两部分。另外,区别于全生命周期的水足迹,工业水足迹评价是针对工业生产过程中由于工业原料、辅料、能源和水的输入,以及废水、废物与产品的输出产生的水足迹,其系统边界不包括分销零售、消费使用与废物处理等环节。其次,在确定的系统边界内构建了工业水足迹的核算框架和基础方法体系,即从生产、公共及运输3个方面收集数据、处理并核算。最后,从产品、企业、行业和区域4个层面对工业水足迹的应用及其意义进行了展望。     

我国几种典型棉纺织产品的工业水足迹评价

产品水足迹评价能够揭示人类活动在产品全生命周期中的水资源综合影响,可以为提高水资源利用与管理水平和引导绿色消费提供重要的科学依据和技术手段,是当前水资源评价与管理领域的热点研究方向。纺织品是日常生活最主要的消费品之一,其工业生产过程需要利用大量的水资源,同时排放出的工业废水还会对周围水环境造成严重影响。为了揭示纺织品生产过程的水资源综合影响,运用工业水足迹的概念与原理,探讨和明确了纺织品工业水足迹评价的系统边界与内容,建立了相应的核算方法,并选择了花灰布、漂白布、染色布、色织布等四种典型棉纺织产品进行了工业水足迹评价。结果显示,漂白布的工业水足迹较小为36.51L/lb,花灰布次之为37.84L/lb,染色布的平均工业水足迹为61.52L/lb,色织布水足迹最大,平均值为81.51L/lb。比较同种类型、不同颜色纺织品的工业水足迹,由大到小依次为深色中色浅色,即颜色越深对水资源的影响程度最大。从水足迹构成来看,棉纺织产品的工业水足迹主要来自于直接工业水足迹,间接工业水足迹占比较小;在直接工业水足迹的构成中,蓝水足迹的贡献较大。     

旅游水足迹评价初探

对旅游活动过程的水资源综合影响进行科学评估是制定旅游业水资源管理和保护措施、提升旅游水资源利用效率的重要前提和基础。为丰富和发展旅游业水资源影响的评价方法, 提出了旅游水足迹的概念, 即在一定区域范围内, 旅游活动中食、住、行、游、娱、购各环节消费的产品和服务的生产过程所消耗的水资源量。旅游水足迹评价则是对旅游水足迹各环节进行量化和分析的过程。进而分析了旅游水足迹的内涵, 确立了旅游水足迹评价的系统边界是以旅游六大要素直接相关的旅游活动过程产生的水足迹。在边界范围内从交通、住宿、餐饮、游览、购物五个方面构建了核算框架和核算方法。最后, 从旅游产品、企业、行业和区域四个层面分析了旅游水足迹评价的应用, 并对今后的研究重点进行了分析。     

污染足迹及其在区域水污染压力评估中的应用——以太湖流域上游湖州市为例

传统生态足迹理论虽然在可持续发展评价等方面得到了广泛的应用,但却仍然无法全面衡量人类活动对生态系统造成的各种影响。其无法全面评估人类活动的根源在于,土地功能排他性假设限制了其对利用生态系统非生物生产性产品和服务的人类活动的衡量。为了摆脱传统生态足迹理论的局限性,建议承认土地功能多样性的客观事实,将生态足迹构建于多种生态系统服务功能之上。针对传统生态足迹对定义中废弃物吸纳的考虑不足,提出了基于污染物吸纳功能的生态足迹,即污染足迹。污染足迹不是对传统生态足迹中能源足迹的简单置换,而是能够囊括人类活动产生的大部分污染物,并可以根据不同的污染物类别或类型进一步细化的足迹类型。构建了太湖流域有机物、氮和磷污染足迹模型,并利用该模型对流域上游湖州市的水污染压力进行了综合评估。结果表明:(1)2007年湖州市污染足迹为39948.73 hm²,东部平原地区污染足迹较大,西部丘陵地区污染足迹相对较小;(2)湖州市人类活动排放的氮磷污染物对水域空间的生态占用已经远远超过了有机污染物;(3)2007年湖州市污染承载力为20896.00 hm²,污染赤字为19052.73 hm²,人类排污活动俨然超出了当地水域的承载能力;(4)2007年湖州市污染压力指数为1.91,当地水环境总体上处于轻度接近中度污染压力;(5)湖州市水污染压力较大的地区,区域内人类活动的维持建立在区域水环境质量恶化或污染物向下游输移的基础之上。     

环境足迹的核算与整合框架——基于生命周期评价的视角

环境足迹及其与生命周期评价(LCA)的关系是工业生态学关注的新热点。从探讨环境足迹与LCA的关系入手,以碳足迹、水足迹、土地足迹和材料足迹为例,分别对每一项足迹指标两个版本的核算方法进行了比较。根据清单加和过程的特点,将所有足迹指标划分为基于权重因子和基于特征因子两类,总结了两者的适用性和局限性。在此基础上提出了一个环境足迹核算与整合的统一框架。该框架基于LCA视角建立,但对系统边界和清单数据的要求相对灵活,因而也适用于生命周期不甚明确的情形。研究在一定程度上揭示了足迹指标的方法学实质,同时也为环境影响综合评估提供了一条规范化的途径。     

基于CiteSpace的生态风险评价研究进展

基于Web of Science和中国知网数据库,运用CiteSpace知识图谱可视化方法,分析国内外生态风险评价的研究进展。结果表明：(1)1990—2020年国内外生态风险评价研究文献数量均快速增长,其中国内文献数量增长更快;(2)国内外文献作者及研究机构之间基本形成合作网络体系,中国科学院的发文量在国际位于领先地位;(3)关键词和关键词聚类可视化分析表明生态风险评价研究长期聚焦在水环境、重金属、有机化合物污染影响;(4)国内外研究重点重合度高、同步性强,均从水环境为主向水土环境与城市环境并重转变、向源解析和风险管理研究延伸,但相较之下,国内研究对风险源、质量标准研究更为重视,国外研究与生物学联系更为紧密、对于国际性话题的研究关注也更多。对当前国内生态风险评价研究的启示包括：增强研究对象多元化和国际化,检验更新各类质量标准,构建相对统一的生态风险评价框架和指标体系,科学评估区域持续发展水平和绿色发展潜力。     

中国生命周期评价理论与实践研究进展及对策分析

主要分析了我国生命周期评价的理论与实践研究进展与数据库构建现状,针对当前我国生命周期评价理论与应用研究的关键薄弱环节即不确定性分析、本土化数据库构建、本土化生命周期环境影响评价模型构建,指出了利用泰勒系列展开模型进行符合我国产业链生产现状的精确、完整、具有代表性、具有时空动态特征的生命周期数据库构建的必要性;并指出需要根据我国国情(例如:环境、地理、人口、暴露等)来构建生命周期环境影响评价模型的紧迫性。     

基于氮排放估算的区域生态风险评价——以中国台湾地区为例

随着全球人口不断成长,农业生产、工业发展、能源消耗及生活消费等人类活动不断增加,对城市区域乃至于区域生态系统均带来显著负面影响。为量化评估人类活动对区域生态系统的影响,以人类活动产生的氮排放为切入点,选择中国台湾地区为研究区,针对其高投入的农业生产、密集的交通工业设施及人口分布等背景,构建了基于氮排放的区域生态风险评价研究框架。分析了2001年至2010年中国台湾地区农业及城市系统所产生的氮排放变化情况,并在空间上比较了各县市的氮排放差异;其次,依据各用地类型特点,定义了其对氮排放压力的脆弱程度,藉以评估中国台湾地区生态风险变化及其潜在风险强度。研究结果表明中国台湾地区2005至2010年期间氮排放带来的生态风险值先降后升,主要原因源于期间农业活动产生的氮排放减少,但交通运输带来能源消耗却明显增加了氮排放;通过分区比较,确定低风险县市主要包括金门县、连江县、澎湖县、新竹市、嘉义市及基隆市,而台中市、屏东县、台南市、高雄市及新北市,由于农业生产活动密集且人口分布密度高,为中国台湾地区高生态风险区。     

Risk Analysis and Carbon Footprint Assessments of the Paper Industry in China

China is the largest paper producer and consumer in the world. However, China's paper industry is inefficient in its consumption of natural resources. Whereas the proportion of wood pulp used by the paper industry in developed countries is up to 63%, the corresponding figure for China is only 23%, leading to high energy and water consumption and severe environmental pollution. This article presents a systematic risk analysis using life cycle assessment and carbon footprint calculation associated with China's straw-pulp and wood-pulp paper industries. Risk prevention measures are proposed based on the results of this analysis. The study has important ramifications for the sustainable development of China's paper industry.     

Spatial perspectives enhance modeling of nanomaterial risks

Novel engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are increasingly being manufactured and integrated into renewable energy generation and storage technologies. Past research estimated the potential impact of this increased demand on environmental systems, due to both the life cycle impact of ENM production and the potential for their direct release into ecosystems. However, many models treat ENM production and use as spatially implicit, without considering the specific geographic location of potential emissions. By not considering geographical context, ENM accumulation or impact may be underestimated. Here, we introduce an integrated predictive model that forecasts likely ENM manufacturing locations and potential emissions to the environment, with a focus on critical environmental areas and freshwater ecosystems. Spatially explicit ENM concentrations are estimated for four case study ENMs that have promising application in lithium‐ion battery production. Results demonstrate that potential ENM exposure from manufacturing locations within buffer zones of sensitive ecosystems would accumulate to levels associated with measured ecotoxicity risk under high release scenarios, underscoring the importance of adding a spatial and temporal perspective to life cycle toxicity impact assessment. This predictive integrated modeling approach is novel to the nanomaterial literature and can be adapted to other regions and material case studies to proactively inform life cycle tradeoffs and decision‐making.     

北京市住宅建筑生命周期碳足迹

从生命周期角度看,建筑碳足迹与能源和建材生产系统具有密切关系。随着技术的进步和节能政策的推进,中国能源的生产和使用,以及建材生产过程中的环境排放都随着时间在持续降低,这将间接地影响到建筑的环境表现。依据1990—2010年期间每5a的中国能源与建材生命周期清单数据,对北京市20年间住宅建筑系统开展生命周期评价和碳足迹核算,以揭示北京市住宅建筑系统的环境负荷变化特征。结果表明,北京市住宅建筑生命周期碳足迹随时间推移呈现降低趋势,主要来自能源系统和建材生产系统的碳减排贡献。不同结构建筑的碳足迹尽管有差异,但也呈现了相似的下降趋势。从生命周期阶段看,建筑碳足迹主要体现在建筑使用阶段和建材生产阶段。尽管建筑使用阶段的节能对于降低建筑生命周期碳足迹具有重要贡献,但节能在经济成本及环境成本方面而言是有限度的。在可持续的环境政策管理制定中,应从生命周期角度,统筹考虑协调各行业减碳的协调发展。论文同时也验证了在生命周期评价中考虑时间变量将有助于更好地利用生命周期评价结果支持环境可持续管理。结论对于城市规划的政策制定、量化环境表现是有益的。     

Implementing a Dynamic Life Cycle Assessment Methodology with a Case Study on Domestic Hot Water Production

This work contributes to the development of a dynamic life cycle assessment (DLCA) methodology by providing a methodological framework to link a dynamic system modeling method with a time‐dependent impact assessment method. This three‐step methodology starts by modeling systems where flows are described by temporal distributions. Then, a temporally differentiated life cycle inventory (TDLCI) is calculated to present the environmental exchanges through time. Finally, time‐dependent characterization factors are applied to the TDLCI to evaluate climate‐change impacts through time. The implementation of this new framework is illustrated by comparing systems producing domestic hot water (DHW) over an 80‐year period. Electricity is used to heat water in the first system, whereas the second system uses a combination of solar energy and gas to heat an equivalent amount of DHW at the same temperature. This comparison shows that using a different temporal precision (i.e., monthly vs. annual) to describe process flows can reverse conclusions regarding which case has the best environmental performance. Results also show that considering the timing of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduces the absolute values of carbon footprint in the short‐term when compared with results from the static life cycle assessment. This pragmatic framework for the implementation of time in DLCA studies is proposed to help in the development of the methodology. It is not yet a fully operational scheme, and efforts are still required before DLCA can become state of practice.     

Assessment of Environmental Impacts of an Aging and Stagnating Water Supply Pipeline Network

Aging urban infrastructure is a common phenomenon in industrialized countries. The urban water supply pipeline network in the city of Oslo is an example. Even as it faces increasing operational, maintenance, and management challenges, it needs to better its environmental performance by reducing, for instance, the associated greenhouse gas emissions. In this article the authors examine the environmental life cycle performance of Oslo's water supply pipelines by analyzing annual resource consumption and emissions as well as life cycle assessment (LCA) impact potentials over a period of 16 years, taking into account the production/manufacture, installation, operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, and retirement of pipelines. It is seen that the water supply pipeline network of Oslo has already reached a state of saturation on a per capita basis, that is, it is not expanding any more relative to the population it serves, and the stock is now rapidly aging. This article is part of a total urban water cycle system analysis for Oslo, and analyzes more specifically the environmental impacts from the material flows in the water distribution network, examining six environmental impact categories using the SimaPro (version 7.1.8) software, Ecoinvent database, and the CML 2001 (version 2.04) methodology. The long‐term management of stocks calls for a strong focus on cost optimization, energy efficiency, and environmental friendliness. Global warming and abiotic depletion emerge as the major impact categories from the water pipeline system, and the largest contribution is from the production and installation phases and the medium‐size pipelines in the network.     

Insights on the Use of Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Footprinting

Establishing a comprehensive environmental footprint that indicates resource use and environmental release hotspots in both direct and indirect operations can help companies formulate impact reduction strategies as part of overall sustainability efforts. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful approach for achieving these objectives. For most companies, financial data are more readily available than material and energy quantities, which suggests a hybrid LCA approach that emphasizes use of economic input‐output (EIO) LCA and process‐based energy and material flow models to frame and develop life cycle emission inventories resulting from company activities. We apply a hybrid LCA framework to an inland marine transportation company that transports bulk commodities within the United States. The analysis focuses on global warming potential, acidification, particulate matter emissions, eutrophication, ozone depletion, and water use. The results show that emissions of greenhouse gases, sulfur, and particulate matter are mainly from direct activities but that supply chain impacts are also significant, particularly in terms of water use. Hotspots were identified in the production, distribution, and use of fuel; the manufacturing, maintenance, and repair of boats and barges; food production; personnel air transport; and solid waste disposal. Results from the case study demonstrate that the aforementioned footprinting framework can provide a sufficiently reliable and comprehensive baseline for a company to formulate, measure, and monitor its efforts to reduce environmental impacts from internal and supply chain operations.     

Biogenic Carbon and Temporary Storage Addressed with Dynamic Life Cycle Assessment

A growing tendency in policy making and carbon footprint estimation gives value to temporary carbon storage in biomass products or to delayed greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Some life cycle‐based methods, such as the British publicly available specification (PAS) 2050 or the recently published European Commission's International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook, address this issue. This article shows the importance of consistent consideration of biogenic carbon and timing of GHG emissions in life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint analysis. We use a fictitious case study assessing the life cycle of a wooden chair for four end‐of‐life scenarios to compare different approaches: traditional LCA with and without consideration of biogenic carbon, the PAS 2050 and ILCD Handbook methods, and a dynamic LCA approach. Reliable results require accounting for the timing of every GHG emission, including biogenic carbon flows, as soon as a benefit is given for temporarily storing carbon or delaying GHG emissions. The conclusions of a comparative LCA can change depending on the time horizon chosen for the analysis. The dynamic LCA approach allows for a consistent assessment of the impact, through time, of all GHG emissions (positive) and sequestration (negative). The dynamic LCA is also a valuable approach for decision makers who have to understand the sensitivity of the conclusions to the chosen time horizon.     

A new water footprint calculation method integrating consumptive and degradative water use into a single stand-alone weighted indicator

Purpose

A complete assessment of water use in life cycle assessment (LCA) involves modelling both consumptive and degradative water use. Due to the range of environmental mechanisms involved, the results are typically reported as a profile of impact category indicator results. However, there is also demand for a single score stand-alone water footprint, analogous to the carbon footprint. To facilitate single score reporting, the critical dilution volume approach has been used to express a degradative emission in terms of a theoretical water volume, sometimes referred to as grey water. This approach has not received widespread acceptance and a new approach is proposed which takes advantage of the complex fate and effects models normally employed in LCA.

Methods

Results for both consumptive and degradative water use are expressed in the reference unit H₂Oe, enabling summation and reporting as a single stand-alone value. Consumptive water use is assessed taking into consideration the local water stress relative to the global average water stress (0.602). Concerning degradative water use, each emission is modelled separately using the ReCiPe impact assessment methodology, with results subsequently normalised, weighted and converted to the reference unit (H₂Oe) by comparison to the global average value for consumptive water use (1.86?×?10^?3 ReCiPe points m^?3).

Results and discussion

The new method, illustrated in a simplified case study, incorporates best practice in terms of life cycle impact assessment modelling for eutrophication, human and eco-toxicity, and is able to assimilate new developments relating to these and any other impact assessment models relevant to water pollution.

Conclusions

The new method enables a more comprehensive and robust assessment of degradative water use in a single score stand-alone water footprint than has been possible in the past.     

Assessing environmental impacts associated with freshwater consumption along the life cycle of animal products: the case of Dutch milk production in Noord-Brabant

Purpose

The assessment of water footprints of a wide range of products has increased awareness on preserving freshwater as a resource. The water footprint of a product was originally defined by Hoekstra and Hung (2002) as the sum of the volumetric water use in terms of green, blue and grey water along the entire life cycle of a product and, as such, does not determine the environmental impact associated with freshwater use. Recently, several papers were published that describe building blocks that enable assessment of the site-specific environmental impact associated with freshwater use along the life cycle of a global food chain, such as the impact on human health (HH), ecosystem quality (EQ) or resource depletion (RD). We integrated this knowledge to enable an assessment of the environmental impact associated with freshwater use along the life cycle of milk production, as a case for a global food chain.

Material and methods

Our approach innovatively combined knowledge about the main impact pathways of freshwater use in life cycle assessment (LCA), knowledge about site-specific freshwater impacts and knowledge about modelling of irrigation requirements of global feed crops to assess freshwater impacts along the life cycle of milk production. We evaluated a Dutch model farm situated on loamy sand in the province of Noord-Brabant, where grass and maize land is commonly irrigated.

Results and discussion

Production of 1 kg of fat-and-protein corrected milk (FPCM) on the model farm in Noord-Brabant required 66 L of consumptive water. About 76 % of this water was used for irrigation during roughage cultivation, 15 % for production of concentrates and 8 % for drinking and cleaning services. Consumptive water use related to production of purchased diesel, gas, electricity and fertiliser was negligible (i.e. total 1 %). Production of 1 kg of FPCM resulted in an impact on HH of 0.8?×?10^?9 disability adjusted life years, on EQ of 12.9?×?10^?3 m²?×?year and on RD of 6.7 kJ. The impact of producing this kilogram of FPCM on RD, for example, was caused mainly by cultivation of concentrate ingredients, and appeared lower than the average impact on RD of production of 1 kg of broccoli in Spain.

Conclusions

Integration of existing knowledge from diverse science fields enabled an assessment of freshwater impacts along the life cycle of a global food chain, such as Dutch milk production, and appeared useful to determine its environmental hotspots. Results from this case study support earlier findings that LCA needs to go beyond simple water volume accounting when the focus is on freshwater scarcity. The approach used, however, required high-resolution inventory global data (i.e. especially regarding crop yield, soil type and root depth), and demonstrated a trade-off between scientific quality of results and applicability of the assessment method.