Antagonistic effect of urea on oxygenation-linked binding of ATP in an elasmobranch hemoglobin

The O2 affinity of "stripped" (cofactor-free) hemoglobin (Hb) of the elasmobranch, Squalus acanthias is decreased by ATP, the main erythrocytic phosphate cofactor but increased by urea at physiological concentration. When both compounds are present, as in life, urea decreases the ATP sensitivity, indicating that previous Hb oxygenation studies in the absence of urea overestimate the modulator role of phosphate cofactors in sharks. Whereas ATP decreases the O2 association equilibrium constant of the deoxygenated pigment, urea raises those of both the deoxy and the oxygenated states. Possible mechanisms for the urea-protein interactions i.e. binding at carboxy-termini or carbamylation of amino-termini of the protein chains, are discussed.     

The binding of CO2 to human hemoglobin.

CO2-dissociation curves of concentrated human deoxy- and carbonmonoxyhemoglobin at 37 degrees, pH 7.6 to 7.0, PCO2 equal to 10 to 160 mm Hg, have been obtained by a rapid mixing and ion exchange technique. The CO2-dissociation curves for deoxyhemogloblin can only be fitted by assuming two classes of binding sites for carbon dioxide. The simplest way to account for the experimental data is to assume that the alpha-amino groups of the alpha and beta chains react with carbon dioxide with affinities that differ by at least a factor of 3. No difference in reactivity with CO2 was found among the four terminal alpha-amino groups of carbonmonoxyhemoglobin.     

Oxygen-linked CO2 binding to isolated beta subunits of human hemoglobin.

It is known that most of the oxygen-linked carbamate which is formed in normal adult human hemoglobin (Hb A) is confined to the beta subunits rather than to the alpha subunits. In order to find out if similar differences exist in the isolated protomers of Hb A we have measured the effect of various pressures of carbon dioxide (pCO2) on the oxygen affinity in the following heme pigments: isolated alpha and beta subunits with free --SH groups (alphaSH, betaSH), mercurated beta subunits (betaPMB), myoglobin (Mb), and betaSH/PLP in which the terminal alpha-amino group of betaSH was irreversibly blocked with pyridoxal phosphate (PLP). Similar measurements were done on Hb A and the fraction of oxygen-linked carbamate calculated from the effect of pCO2 (at constant pH) on the oxygen half-saturation pressure (p50). A distinct influence of CO2 on p50 was observed in betaSH which was absent in betaSH/PLP and thus indicates that the terminal alpha-amino group mediates the oxygen-linked binding of CO2 in betaSH as it does in the beta subunits of Hb A. However, the fraction of oxygen-linked carbamate was much less dependent on pH and pCO2 in betaSH than in Hb A. Neither alphaSH, betaPMB, or Mb, all of which are known to exist largely or wholly as monomers but have free terminal alpha-amino groups, showed a shift of p50 upon addition of CO2. As both betaSH and betaSH/PLP were shown to be tetrameric molecules, we conclude from this study that homotetramers composed of isolated beta subunits do exhibit a reciprocal interaction between the binding of O2 and CO2.     

Carbon-13 NMR studies of 13CO binding to human hemoglobin

In the ¹³C NMR spectrum of hemoglobin A carbonylated with ¹³CO, separate resonances can be distinguished at 207.04 ppm and 206.60 ppm (with respect to the ¹³C resonance of external tetramethyl-silane) for ¹³Co bound to the α and β chains of the hemoglobin tetramer. A study of the ¹³Co derivatives of the isolated α and β chains, and of the abnormal hemoglobin M_IWATE which contains α chains which are in the met [Fe(III)] form and do not bind CO, has permitted an assignment of the high field (206.60 ppm) resonance to the β chain ¹³CO and the low field one to the α chain ¹³CO. The identification of these ¹³Co resonances permits a study of the differences in the chemistry of the α and β heme units in intact hemoglobin. Some results on the differences in the redox behavior of these chains are included.     

An oxygenation-linked dye binding to Limulus polyphemus hemocyanin

The reaction of Limulus polyphemus hemocyanin with a dye, bromthymol blue, was examined by equilibrium dialysis, spectrophotometric titration and stopped-flow methods. Oxy-hemocyanin contained one binding site per hexamer unit. The dye binding was linked to oxygenation, and the affinity of the dye for the oxy form was about 10 times as high as that for the deoxy form. Conversely, the dye increased the O2 affinity of hemocyanin. Hemocyanin showed a simple hyperbolic binding curve in the bromthymol blue titration, whereas the time course of the reaction was generally biphasic. It was inferred from the kinetic analyses that the reaction proceeds in two steps. The first bimolecular step is characterized by an increase in the apparent pKa of the bound dye, while the second unimolecular step by a red shift of the absorption band of the unionized dye. The dye binding to partially oxygenated hemocyanin was examined spectrophotometrically; the fractional change in the binding was found to be ahead of the increase in the average degree of O2 saturation. It was concluded that the structural changes in hemocyanin which lead to the increased dye affinity take place at an early stage of the ligand binding sequence.     

Carbon dioxide binding to human hemoglobin cross-linked between the alpha chains

The binding of carbon dioxide to human hemoglobin cross-linked between Lys alpha 99 residues with bis(3,5-di-bromosalicyl) fumarate was measured using manometric techniques. The binding of CO2 to unmodified hemoglobin can be described by two classes of sites with high and low affinities corresponding to the amino-terminal valines of the beta and alpha chains, respectively (Perrella, M., Kilmartin, J. V., Fogg, J., and Rossi-Bernardi, L. (1975b) Nature 256, 759-761. The cross-linked hemoglobin bound less CO2 than native hemoglobin at all CO2 concentrations in deoxygenated and liganded conformations, and the ligand-linked effect was reduced. Fitting the data to models of CO2 binding suggests that only half of the expected saturation with CO2 is possible. The remaining binding is described by a single affinity constant that for cross-linked deoxyhemoglobin is about two-thirds of the high affinity constant for deoxyhemoglobin A and that for cross-linked cyanomethemoglobin is equal to the high affinity constant for unmodified cyanomethemoglobin A or carbonmonoxyhemoglobin A. The low affinity binding constant for cross-linked hemoglobin in both the deoxygenated and liganded conformations is close to zero, which is significantly less than the affinity constants for either subunit binding site in unmodified hemoglobin. Comparing the low affinity sites in this modified hemoglobin to native hemoglobin suggests that cross-linking hemoglobin between Lys alpha 99 residues prevents CO2 binding at the alpha-subunit NH2 termini.     

Selenium binding to human hemoglobin via selenotrisulfide

Selenotrisulfide (e.g., glutathione selenotrisulfide (GSSeSG)) is an important intermediate in the metabolism of selenite. However, its reactivity with biological substances such as peptides and proteins in the subsequent metabolism is still far from clearly understood, because of its chemical instability under physiological conditions. Penicillamine (Pen) is capable of generating a chemically stable and isolatable selenotrisulfide, PenSSeSPen. To explore the metabolic fate of selenite in red blood cells (RBC), we investigated the reaction of selenotrisulfide with human hemoglobin (Hb) using PenSSeSPen as a model. PenSSeSPen rapidly reacted with Hb under physiological conditions. From the analysis of selenium binding using the Langmuir type binding equation, the apparent binding number of selenium per Hb tetramer almost corresponded to the number of reactive thiol groups of Hb. The thiol group blockade of Hb by iodoacetamide treatment completely inhibited the reaction of PenSSeSPen with Hb. In addition, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometric analysis of the selenium-bound Hb revealed that PenSSe moiety binds to the beta subunits of Hb. Overall, the reaction of PenSSeSPen with Hb appears to involve the thiol exchange between Pen and the cysteine residues on the beta subunit of Hb.     

Linkage between carbon dioxide binding and four-step oxygen binding to hemoglobin

In order to elucidate the molecular mechanism of the effect of carbon dioxide on the four-step oxygenation equilibria of hemoglobin, accurate oxygen equilibrium curves of human adult hemoglobin were determined at different concentrations of CO₂ and in the presence and absence of chloride (Cl^?), 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (P₂G), and/or inositol hexaphosphate (IHP) and were analyzed according to Adair's stepwise oxygenation scheme to evaluate the four Adair constants, k_i (i = 1 to 4). The effects of CO₂ on oxygen affinity and co-operativity are influenced by H⁺, Cl^?, P₂G and IHP. The shape of the oxygen equilibrium curve varies with changes of CO₂ concentration; the four Adair constants are affected by CO₂ non-uniformly. Hence, the number of CO₂ molecules released upon oxygenation is not the same in the individual oxygenation steps. In the absence of added Cl^?, CO₂ lowers the overall oxygen affinity expressed by median oxygen pressure (p_m) and increases the co-operativity expressed by Hill's coefficient (n_max) by reducing k₁, k₂ and k₃ without changing k₄. significantly. The effect of CO₂ on oxygen affinity becomes smaller with decrease in pH, disappearing below pH 6.5. The alkaline Bohr effect is reduced by CO₂. The first oxygenation step contributes to the reduction of the Bohr effect more than the fourth step. When log p_m is plotted against log [CO₂] at several constant Cl^? concentrations, the plots converge to a common point that is named “iso-effective point”. When log p_p is plotted against log [Cl^?] at several constant CO₂ concentrations, the plots also converge to an iso-effective point. This phenomenon can be explained in terms of linkage relations in oxygen-linked competitive binding of CO₂ and Cl^?. It was found to be useful to consider in this analysis that the bicarbonate ion introduced by added CO₂ exerts a heterotropic effect equivalent to that of Cl^?. The combined effects of Cl^?, CO₂ and IHP were not explained satisfactorily by the present analysis using linkage relations.     

Oxygen and CO binding to triply NO and asymmetric NO/CO hemoglobin hybrids.

The bimolecular and geminate CO recombination kinetics have been measured for hemoglobin (Hb) with over 90% of the ligand binding sites occupied by NO. Since Hb(NO)4 with inositol hexaphosphate (IHP) at pH below 7 is thought to take on the low affinity (deoxy) conformation, the goal of the experiments was to determine whether the species IHPHb-(NO)3(CO) also exists in this quaternary structure, which would allow ligand binding studies to tetramers in the deoxy conformation. For samples at pH 6.6 in the presence of IHP, the bimolecular kinetics show only a slow phase with rate 7 x 10(4) M-1 s-1, characteristic of CO binding to deoxy Hb, indicating that the triply NO tetramers are in the deoxy conformation. Unlike Hb(CO)4, the fraction recombination occurring during the geminate phase is low (< 1%) in aqueous solutions, suggesting that the IHPHb(NO)3(CO) hybrid is also essentially in the deoxy conformation. By mixing stock solutions of HbCO and HbNO, the initial exchange of dimers produces asymmetric (alpha NO beta NO/alpha CO beta CO) hybrids. At low pH in the presence of IHP, this hybrid also displays a high bimolecular quantum yield and a large fraction of slow (deoxy-like) CO recombination; the slow bimolecular kinetics show components of equal amplitude with rates 7 and 20 x 10(4) M-1 s-1, probably reflecting the differences in the alpha and beta chains.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Carbon monoxide binding to human hemoglobin A0

The carbon monoxide binding curve to human hemoglobin A0 has been measured to high precision in experimental conditions of 600 microM heme, 0.1 M N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid, 0.1 M NaCl, 10 mM inositol hexaphosphate, 1 mM disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, pH 6.94, and 25 degrees C. Comparison to the oxygen binding curve in the same experimental conditions demonstrates that the two curves are not parallel. This result invalidates Haldane's two laws for the partitioning between carbon monoxide and oxygen to human hemoglobin. The partition coefficient is found to be 263 +/- 27 at high saturation, in agreement with previous studies, but is lowered substantially at low saturation. Although the oxygen and carbon monoxide binding curves are not parallel, both show the population of the triply ligated species to be negligible. The molecular mechanism underlying carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin is consistent with the allosteric model [Di Cera, E., Robert, C. H., & Gill, S. J. (1987) Biochemistry 26, 4003-4008], which accounts for the negligible contribution of the triply ligated species in the oxygen binding reaction to hemoglobin [Gill, S. J., Di Cera, E., Doyle, M. L., Bishop, G. A., & Robert, C. H. (1987) Biochemistry 26, 3995-4002]. The nature of the different binding properties of carbon monoxide stems largely from the lower partition coefficient of the T state (123 +/- 34), relative to the R state (241 +/- 19).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

The binding of n-butyl isocyanide to human hemoglobin

The binding of n-butyl isocyanide to hemoglobin has been investigated by ¹⁹F-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The ¹⁹F-nmr spectrum of hemoglobin trifluoroacetonylated at cysteine β93 exhibits chemical shift changes on binding of ligands to the β chains. Comparison of these changes to the fractional change in the visible spectrum, shows that in the presence of diphosphoglyceric acid initial ligands bind preferentially to α chains. In the absence of DPG, ligation of β chains increases linearly with overall fractional ligation, indicating that binding to α and β chains is random under these conditions.     

CO binding to hemoglobin and myoglobin in equilibrium with a gas phase of low PO2 value

The aim of this paper was to measure the binding of CO to myoglobin and hemoglobin at various PO2 values. For this purpose we have studied an "in vitro" system made up of solutions of hemoglobin and myoglobin equilibrated in two connected tonometers with the same gas phase of various PO2 and PCO. The results indicate that a significant proportion of CO is released by hemoglobin and binds myoglobin at low PO2 values (approximately 2-3 Torr), in qualitative agreement with the predictions of a previous computer simulation of the "in vivo" system.     

Antagonistic lipopolysaccharides block E. coli lipopolysaccharide function at human TLR4 via interaction with the human MD-2 lipopolysaccharide binding site

Lipopolysaccharides containing underacylated lipid A structures exhibit reduced abilities to activate the human (h) Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signalling pathway and function as potent antagonists against lipopolysaccharides bearing canonical lipid A structures. Expression of underacylated lipopolysaccharides has emerged as a novel mechanism utilized by microbial pathogens to modulate host innate immune responses. Notably, antagonistic lipopolysaccharides are prime therapeutic candidates for combating Gram negative bacterial sepsis. Penta-acylated msbB and tetra-acylated Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharides functionally antagonize hexa-acylated Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide-dependent activation of hTLR4 through the coreceptor, hMD-2. Here, the molecular mechanism by which these antagonistic lipopolysaccharides act at hMD-2 is examined. We present evidence that both msbB and P. gingivalis lipopolysaccharides are capable of direct binding to hMD-2. These antagonistic lipopolysaccharides can utilize at least two distinct mechanisms to block E. coli lipopolysaccharide-dependent activation of hTLR4. The main mechanism consists of direct competition between the antagonistic lipopolysaccharides and E. coli lipopolysaccharide for the same binding site on hMD-2, while the secondary mechanism involves the ability of antagonistic lipopolysaccharide-hMD-2 complexes to inhibit E. coli lipopolysaccharide-hMD-2 complexes function at hTLR4. It is also shown that both hTLR4 and hMD-2 contribute to the species-specific recognition of msbB and P. gingivalis lipopolysaccharides as antagonists at the hTLR4 complex.