The relationship between osteoclastogenic and anti-osteoclastogenic pro-inflammatory cytokines differs in human osteoporotic and osteoarthritic bone tissues

Background

Pro-inflammatory cytokines possess osteoclastogenic or anti-osteoclastogenic activities. They influence osteoclasts directly or via the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB (RANK), RANK ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) system. Recent evidence suggests that inflammation may play a role in osteoporosis (OP) and osteoarthritis (OA). We aimed therefore to determine whether there is a difference between both groups: first, in the expression of the osteoclastogenic and anti-osteoclastogenic cytokines, second, in correlation of these cytokines with bone mineral density (BMD) and levels of bone turnover markers (BTM) and third, in correlation between the expression of these cytokines and osteoclast specific genes and RANK/RANKL/OPG genes.

Methods

Human bone samples from 54 age and sex matched patients with OP or OA were collected during hip arthroplasty surgery. The expression of 25 genes encoding pro-inflammatory cytokines, their receptors, osteoclast specific genes and RANK/RANKL/OPG genes was measured using quantitative real-time PCR. Total hip, femoral neck and lumbar spine BMD and BTM in blood samples were measured. The comparison between OP and OA was assessed using Student''s t-test or Mann-Whitney U test and correlations between gene expression, BMD and BTM were determined using nonparametric correlation.

Results

The results demonstrated a higher expression of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1α in OP, and interferon (IFN)-γ in OA (p < 0.0005). Negative correlations of total hip BMD with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in OA and with RANKL/RANK in OP were found (p < 0.05). Significant correlations with BTM were shown for IL-1α and IFN-γ in OP (rho = 0.608 and -0.634) and for TNF-α, IL-6 and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) in OA (rho = 0.591, -0.521 and 0.636). Results showed OP specific negative correlations (IFN-γ with ITGB3, IFN-β1 with CTSK, tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), CALCR, RANK, RANKL, IL-1α with CTSK, OPG, IL-17A with CALCR) and positive (TGF-β1 with CTSK, TRAP, RANK), and OA specific negative (IL-1α with osteoclast associated immunoglobulin-like receptor (OSCAR), TNF-α with RANK, RANKL, OPG) and positive (IL-6 with RANK, RANKL, OPG) correlations.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that the relationship between osteoclastogenic and anti-osteoclastogenic pro-inflammatory cytokines differs in human OP and OA bone and could present an important factor for characteristics of OP and OA bone phenotypes.     

迷走神经刺激对难治性癫痫大鼠海马神经炎性反应及α7nAChR表达的影响*

目的: 探讨迷走神经刺激(VNS)对难治性癫痫(IE)模型大鼠海马神经炎性反应及α7nAChR表达的影响。方法: 80只成年雄性SD大鼠,SPF级,随机分为对照组、模型组、VNS组、甲基牛扁亭(MLA)+VNS组,其中对照组与MLA+VNS组分别20只,模型组与VNS组因模型制作失败与动物死亡,分别剩下15只和14只。除对照组之外,其余各组皆通过腹腔注射皮罗卡品建立氯化锂-皮罗卡品IE大鼠模型。对照组仅分离迷走神经,不采取电刺激;模型组不采取任何干预措施;VNS组在模型制作成功后7 d采取VNS,连续4周;MLA+VNS组先侧脑室给药MLA(3.4 μg/μl,5 μl),然后给予VNS,连续4周。观察并记录各组大鼠癫痫发作的次数与持续时间的变化;然后断头处死大鼠,快速分离海马并制备10%组织匀浆,离心并提取上清液,通过分光光度法测定上清液中AChE、ChAT活性;ELISA法检测TNF-ɑ、IL-6和IL-1β表达;Western blot检测海马组织α7nAChR蛋白表达;免疫荧光染色法检测海马组织α7nAChR与小胶质细胞共表达。结果: ①通过VNS治疗4周后,大鼠癫痫发作的频率以及持续的时间都明显低于模型组(P<0.01);MLA阻断后在给予VNS,大鼠癫痫发作的频率以及持续的时间也明显低于模型组,但高于VNS组(P<0.01)。②与对照组比较,模型组大鼠海马组织ChAT表达明显下降,AChE表达明显升高(P<0.01);与模型组比较,VNS组与MLA+VNS组大鼠海马组织ChAT表达明显升高,AChE表达明显降低(P< 0.01);与VNS组比较,MLA+VNS组大鼠海马组织ChAT、AChE表达无明显变化(P>0.05)。③与对照组比较,模型组大鼠海马组织TNF-ɑ、IL-6和IL-1β表达明显升高(P<0.01);与模型组比较,VNS组大鼠海马组织TNF-ɑ、IL-6和IL-1β表达明显降低(P<0.01);与VNS组比较,MLA+VNS组大鼠海马组织TNF-ɑ、IL-6和IL-1β表达明显升高(P<0.01)。④与对照组比较,模型组大鼠海马组织以及小胶质细胞上α7nAChR表达明显降低(P<0.01);与模型组比较,VNS组大鼠海马组织以及小胶质细胞上α7nAChR表达明显上调(P<0.01);与VNS组比较,MLA+VNS组海马小胶质细胞上共表达α7nAChR数量明显减少(P<0.01)。结论: VNS对IE大鼠有明显的治疗作用,其机制可能是通过直接激活海马小胶质细胞CAP,抑制海马神经炎性反应来实现的。     

Key Residues in the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor β2 Subunit Contribute to α-Conotoxin LvIA Binding

α-Conotoxin LvIA (α-CTx LvIA) is a small peptide from the venom of the carnivorous marine gastropod Conus lividus and is the most selective inhibitor of α3β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) known to date. It can distinguish the α3β2 nAChR subtype from the α6β2* (* indicates the other subunit) and α3β4 nAChR subtypes. In this study, we performed mutational studies to assess the influence of residues of the β2 subunit versus those of the β4 subunit on the binding of α-CTx LvIA. Although two β2 mutations, α3β2[F119Q] and α3β2[T59K], strongly enhanced the affinity of LvIA, the β2 mutation α3β2[V111I] substantially reduced the binding of LvIA. Increased activity of LvIA was also observed when the β2-T59L mutant was combined with the α3 subunit. There were no significant difference in inhibition of α3β2[T59I], α3β2[Q34A], and α3β2[K79A] nAChRs when compared with wild-type α3β2 nAChR. α-CTx LvIA displayed slower off-rate kinetics at α3β2[F119Q] and α3β2[T59K] than at the wild-type receptor, with the latter mutant having the most pronounced effect. Taken together, these data provide evidence that the β2 subunit contributes to α-CTx LvIA binding and selectivity. The results demonstrate that Val¹¹¹ is critical and facilitates LvIA binding; this position has not previously been identified as important to binding of other 4/7 framework α-conotoxins. Thr⁵⁹ and Phe¹¹⁹ of the β2 subunit appear to interfere with LvIA binding, and their replacement by the corresponding residues of the β4 subunit leads to increased affinity.     

Wild-type IDH1 inhibits the tumor growth through degrading HIF-α in renal cell carcinoma

The purpose of our study was to explore the effect and intrinsic mechanism of wild-type IDH1 and its substrate α-KG on renal cell carcinoma (RCC). IDH1 was observed lower expression in RCC cell lines. Phenotype experiment was carried out in the wild-type IDH1 and mutant IDH1^R132H plasmid treated cell line. The results showed that the wild-type IDH1 could significantly inhibit the proliferation, migration and promote the apoptosis of RCC cell lines, which were consistent with the IDH1''s substrate α-KG. The mutant IDH1^R132H was found to lose this biological function of IDH1. Moreover, we verified the proliferation inhibition of IDH1 in vivo. In addition, we verified the correlation between IDH1 and hypoxia signal-related proteins in vitro and in vivo, specifically, IDH1 overexpression could significantly reduce the expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α proteins and its downstream proteins (VEGF, TGF-α). Furthermore, we preliminarily verified the possibility of α-KG in the RCC''s treatment by injecting α-KG into the xenograft model. α-KG significantly reduced tumor size and weight in tumor-bearing mice. This study provided a new therapeutic target and small molecule for the study of the treatment and mechanism of RCC.     

EGFR kinase activity is required for TLR4 signaling and the septic shock response

Mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognize microbial products and elicit transient immune responses that protect the infected host from disease. TLR4—which signals from both plasma and endosomal membranes—is activated by bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and induces many cytokine genes, the prolonged expression of which causes septic shock in mice. We report here that the expression of some TLR4-induced genes in myeloid cells requires the protein kinase activity of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). EGFR inhibition affects TLR4-induced responses differently depending on the target gene. The induction of interferon-β (IFN-β) and IFN-inducible genes is strongly inhibited, whereas TNF-α induction is enhanced. Inhibition is specific to the IFN-regulatory factor (IRF)-driven genes because EGFR is required for IRF activation downstream of TLR—as is IRF co-activator β-catenin—through the PI3 kinase/AKT pathway. Administration of an EGFR inhibitor to mice protects them from LPS-induced septic shock and death by selectively blocking the IFN branch of TLR4 signaling. These results demonstrate a selective regulation of TLR4 signaling by EGFR and highlight the potential use of EGFR inhibitors to treat septic shock syndrome.     

The selective alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist AR-R17779 does not affect ischemia–reperfusion brain injury in mice

Inflammation plays a central role in stroke-induced brain injury. The alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) can modulate immune responses in both the periphery and the brain. The aims of the present study were to investigate α7nAChR expression in different brain regions and evaluate the potential effect of the selective α7nAChR agonist AR-{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"R17779","term_id":"771389"}}R17779 on ischemia–reperfusion brain injury in mice. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) was used to evaluate the absolute expression of the gene encoding α7nAChR (Chrna7) in hippocampus, striatum, thalamus and cortex in adult, naïve mice. Mice subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) or sham surgery were treated with α7nAChR agonist AR-{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"R17779","term_id":"771389"}}R17779 (12 mg/kg) or saline once daily for 5 days. Infarct size and microglial activation 7 days after tMCAO were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. Chrna7 expression was found in all analyzed brain regions in naïve mice with the highest expression in cortex and hippocampus. At sacrifice, white blood cell count was significantly decreased in AR-{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"R17779","term_id":"771389"}}R17779 treated mice compared with saline controls in the sham groups, although, no effect was seen in the tMCAO groups. Brain injury and microglial activation were evident 7 days after tMCAO. However, no difference was found between mice treated with saline or AR-{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"R17779","term_id":"771389"}}R17779. In conclusion, α7nAChR expression varies in different brain regions and, despite a decrease in white blood cells in sham mice receiving AR-{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"R17779","term_id":"771389"}}R17779, this compound does not affect stroke-induced brain injury.     

Karrikins force a rethink of strigolactone mode of action

Strigolactones (SL) and karrikins (KAR) both contain essential butenolide moieties, and both require the F-box protein MAX2 to control seed germination and photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. A new discovery that SL and KAR also require related α/β-hydrolase proteins for such activity suggests that they operate through a similar molecular mechanism. Based on structural similarity, a previously proposed mode of action for SL was also considered for KAR, but recent structure-activity studies suggest that this mechanism may not apply. Here we rationalise these observations into a hypothesis whereby different α/β-hydrolases distinguish SL and KAR by virtue of their non-butenolide moieties and catalyze nucleophilic attack on the butenolide. The products would be different for SL and KAR, and in the case of SL they have no biological activity. The inference is that nucleophilic attack on SL and KAR by α/β-hydrolases is required for their bioactivity, but the hydrolysis products are not.     

FBXL20 promotes breast cancer malignancy by inhibiting apoptosis through degradation of PUMA and BAX

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death that efficiently removes damaged cells to maintain tissue homeostasis. Defect in apoptotic machinery can lead to tumor development, progression, and resistance to chemotherapy. PUMA (p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis) and BAX (BCL2-associated X protein) are among the most well-known inducers of apoptosis. It has been reported that expression levels of BAX and PUMA are controlled at the posttranslational level by phosphorylation. However, the posttranslational regulation of these proapoptotic proteins remains largely unexplored. In this study, using biochemical, molecular biology, flow cytometric, and immunohistochemistry techniques, we show that PUMA and BAX are the direct target of the F-box protein FBXL20, which restricts their cellular levels. FBXL20 directs the proteasomal degradation of PUMA and BAX in a protein kinase AKT1-dependent manner to promote cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth. Interestingly, inactivation of AKT1 results in activation of another protein kinase GSK3α/β, which facilitates the proteasomal degradation of FBXL20 by another F-box protein, FBXO31. Thus, a switch between two signaling kinases AKT1 and GSK3α/β modulates the functional activity of these proapoptotic regulators, thereby determining cell survival or death. RNAi-mediated ablation of FBXL20 results in increased levels of PUMA as well as BAX, which further enhances the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs. We showed that high level expression of FBXL20 in cancer cells reduces therapeutic drug-induced apoptosis and promotes chemoresistance. Overall, this study highlights the importance of targeting FBXL20 in cancers in conjunction with chemotherapy and may represent a promising anticancer strategy to overcome chemoresistance.     

Reconstitution of the recombinant human γ-tubulin ring complex

Cryo-electron microscopy recently resolved the structure of the vertebrate γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) purified from Xenopus laevis egg extract and human cells to near-atomic resolution. These studies clarified the arrangement and stoichiometry of γ-TuRC components and revealed that one molecule of actin and the small protein MZT1 are embedded into the complex. Based on this structural census of γ-TuRC core components, we developed a recombinant expression system for the reconstitution and purification of human γ-TuRC from insect cells. The recombinant γ-TuRC recapitulates the structure of purified native γ-TuRC and has similar functional properties in terms of microtubule nucleation and minus end capping. This recombinant system is a central step towards deciphering the activation mechanisms of the γ-TuRC and the function of individual γ-TuRC core components.     

CKIP-1 regulates macrophage proliferation by inhibiting TRAF6-mediated Akt activation

Macrophages play pivotal roles in development, homeostasis, tissue repair and immunity. Macrophage proliferation is promoted by macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-induced Akt signaling; yet, how this process is terminated remains unclear. Here, we identify casein kinase 2-interacting protein-1 (CKIP-1) as a novel inhibitor of macrophage proliferation. In resting macrophages, CKIP-1 was phosphorylated at Serine 342 by constitutively active GSK3β, the downstream target of Akt. This phosphorylation triggers the polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of CKIP-1. Upon M-CSF stimulation, Akt is activated by CSF-1R-PI3K and then inactivates GSK3β, leading to the stabilization of CKIP-1 and β-catenin proteins. β-catenin promotes the expression of proliferation genes including cyclin D and c-Myc. CKIP-1 interacts with TRAF6, a ubiquitin ligase required for K63-linked ubiquitination and plasma membrane recruitment of Akt, and terminates TRAF6-mediated Akt activation. By this means, CKIP-1 inhibits macrophage proliferation specifically at the late stage after M-CSF stimulation. Furthermore, CKIP-1 deficiency results in increased proliferation and decreased apoptosis of macrophages in vitro and CKIP-1^−/− mice spontaneously develop a macrophage-dominated splenomegaly and myeloproliferation. Together, these data demonstrate that CKIP-1 plays a critical role in the regulation of macrophage homeostasis by inhibiting TRAF6-mediated Akt activation.     

Design, synthesis, structure-activity relationship, and in vivo activity of azabicyclic aryl amides as alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists

A novel set of azabicyclic aryl amides have been identified as potent and selective agonists of the α7 nAChR. A two-pronged approach was taken to improve the potential hERG liability of previously disclosed α7 nAChR agonist, PNU-282,987, while maintaining the compound’s other desirable pharmacological properties. The first approach involved further exploration of the aryl carboxylic acid fragment of PNU-282,987, while the second approach focused on modification of the azabicyclic amine portion of PNU-282,987. The best compounds from each series are characterized by rapid brain penetration, good oral bioavailability in rat, and demonstrate in vivo efficacy in a rat P50 auditory sensory gating assay. At least one analog from each series (1h, 1o, 2a, 9a, and 18a) shows an improved hERG safety profile over PNU-282,987.     

Moieties of Complement iC3b Recognized by the I-domain of Integrin αXβ2

Complement fragment iC3b serves as a major opsonin for facilitating phagocytosis via its interaction with complement receptors CR3 and CR4, also known by their leukocyte integrin family names, αMβ2 and αXβ2, respectively. Although there is general agreement that iC3b binds to the αM and αX I-domains of the respective β2-integrins, much less is known regarding the regions of iC3b contributing to the αX I-domain binding. In this study, using recombinant αX I-domain, as well as recombinant fragments of iC3b as candidate binding partners, we have identified two distinct binding moieties of iC3b for the αX I-domain. They are the C3 convertase-generated N-terminal segment of the C3b α’-chain (α’NT) and the factor I cleavage-generated N-terminal segment in the CUBf region of α-chain. Additionally, we have found that the CUBf segment is a novel binding moiety of iC3b for the αM I-domain. The CUBf segment shows about a 2-fold higher binding activity than the α’NT for αX I-domain. We also have shown the involvement of crucial acidic residues on the iC3b side of the interface and basic residues on the I-domain side.     

Immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides stimulate expression of IL-1β and interferon-like cytokines in rainbow trout macrophages via a chloroquine-sensitive mechanism

Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated CpG motifs are known to stimulate immune responses and are potent adjuvants in higher vertebrates, but so far the effects in fish are poorly described. We here report that CpG ODNs induce IL-1β expression and production of interferon-like cytokines in rainbow trout head-kidney macrophages, whereas ODNs with an inverted motif (GpC) have a much less stimulatory effect. We further demonstrate that endosomal maturation is essential for CpG signalling, as chloroquine, a compound known to block endosomal acidification, inhibits cytokine expression in the macrophages.     

Lymphocyte senescence in COPD is associated with loss of glucocorticoid receptor expression by pro-inflammatory/cytotoxic lymphocytes

Background

Glucocorticoid (GC) resistance is a major barrier in COPD treatment. We have shown increased expression of the drug efflux pump, Pgp1 in cytotoxic/pro-inflammatory lymphocytes in COPD. Loss of lymphocyte co-stimulatory molecule CD28 (lymphocyte senescence) was associated with a further increase in their pro-inflammatory/cytotoxic potential and resistance to GC. We hypothesized that lymphocyte senescence and increased Pgp1 are also associated with down-regulation of the GC receptor (GCR).

Methods

Blood was collected from 10 COPD and 10 healthy aged-matched controls. Flow cytometry was applied to assess intracellular pro-inflammatory cytokines, CD28, Pgp1, GCR, steroid binding and relative cytoplasm/nuclear GCR by CD28+ and CD28null T, NKT-like cells. GCR localization was confirmed by fluorescent microscopy.

Results

COPD was associated with increased numbers of CD28nullCD8+ T and NKT-like cells. Loss of CD28 was associated with an increased percentage of T and NKT-like cells producing IFNγ or TNFα and associated with a loss of GCR and Dex-Fluor staining but unchanged Pgp1. There was a significant loss of GCR in CD8 + CD28null compared with CD8 + CD28+ T and NKT-like cells from both COPD and controls (eg, mean ± SEM 8 ± 3% GCR + CD8 + CD28null T-cells vs 49 ± 5% GCR + CD8 + CD28+ T-cells in COPD). There was a significant negative correlation between GCR expression and IFNγ and TNFα production by T and NKT-like cells(eg, COPD: T-cell IFNγ R = −.615; ) and with FEV1 in COPD (R = −.777).

Conclusions

COPD is associated with loss of GCR in senescent CD28null and NKT-like cells suggesting alternative treatment options to GC are required to inhibit these pro-inflammatory/cytotoxic cells.