Study of Siphonaptera in Somalia

In the period 1982-1984 samples of fleas were collected from wild animals of the Middle Scebeli, Low Scebeli and Bay Regions of Somalia. In total 1,335 specimens (486 males and 849 females) were obtained from 17 species of mammalian hosts out of the 19 examined. The following species of fleas were identified: Echidnophaga gallinacea, E. larina, E. murina, Ctenocephalides felis strongylus, Synosternus burtoni, S. somalicus, S. burtoni, S. somalicus, C. felis strongylus and E. larina are known to be widespread in Somalia; on the contrary, the presence of E. gallinacea in this country has not been reported in the literature, though the flea collection of the Institute of Parasitology of the University of Rome owns five females of this species which were collected by Zavattari in South Somalia during the year 1933. Moreover, as far as it is known, E. murina has not been reported in Somalia until now. The spermatheca of the females identified as S. burtoni is described in detail as it shows characteristics which have not been apparently reported before.     

Female preferences for single and combined traits in computer animated stickleback males

In many animal species, males have more than one secondary sexualcharacter. Apart from theoretical considerations about the evolutionof multiple traits, there are almost no empirical studies onfemale mate choice decisions based on combinations of traitsas opposed to decisions based on single traits. Because three-spinedsticklebacks are exceptionally well suited to be tested withcomputer animation technique, which itself fills the gap ofadequate test paradigms for multiple traits, we tested femalesticklebacks for their preferences for both single and combinedmale traits. We used virtual stickleback males that differedeither in red throat coloration, courtship intensity, bodysize, or in combinations of these traits. The virtual malewith increased redness was found to be preferred by females,whereas the male courting more intensely was not. The testsfor combinations of traits revealed the more pronounced femalepreferences, the more traits were available to the femalesto judge male quality.     

Polygamy and fertility in Somalia

The 1983 Somali Family Health Survey showed that polygamy and monogamy selected women with different social characteristics. Wives in polygamous unions were prone to be younger at first martial cohabitation and to have previous marital disruptions. Since a young age at first cohabitation and number of previous marriages have opposite effects on the cumulative fertility rate of women, the difference in this rate between wives in polygamous and monogamous unions vanished when both factors were controlled in a multivariate analysis.     

The palpebral fissure in Somalia

The morphology of the palpebral fissure in Somalia is studied in two samples of the population: 1236 adults and 471 school children. In both groups the presence of a slight Mongolian fold and obliquity of the rima was noted, which, by narrowing the fissure, makes the eye more suited to the climate of the country.There is an interdependence between the characteristics under examination and sex. The presence of the slight Mongolian fold is reduced in Somalian students between the ages of 13 and 22.     

Spondylolysis: its nature and anthropological significance

Spondylolysis of the lower back is a kind of vertebral fracture that is unique to humans being related to anatomical features such as the lumbar curve which facilitate upright posture and bipedal locomotion in this species. It is virtually never seen in children before the age of walking and has not been observed in adults who were never able to walk. Although apparently produced on occasion by acute trauma, spondylolysis usually develops as a fatigue fracture in response to sustained or repeated stress. The occurrence of spondylolysis varies greatly from population to population with the highest frequencies, approaching 50%, seen in northern Alaskan and Greenlandic Eskimos. Males are affected more frequently than females, and the condition is common in athletes, particularly gymnasts, divers, polevaulters, and American football players. It is also seen among heavy laborers, especially if the job requires lifting. Although generally approached as a pathological condition requiring corrective treatment, spondylolysis, as well as the anterior slippage (olisthesis) that frequently accompanies it, usually produces relatively mild symptoms if any at all. In fact, it many even provide advantages such as greater flexibility in the lower back.     

Genetic structure of a population of Valparaiso. II. Distribution of two dental traits with anthropological importance

The frequency of Carabelli's cusp (27.24%) and shovel-shaped incisors (45.72%) were determined in a sample of students from the city of Valparaíso. These values are intermediate between those found in Caucasian and Mongolian populations. A sexual dimorphism was observed for shovel-shaped incisors; the relation of this trait to a socio-economic index and occlusal type is indicated. Carabelli's cusp is found to vary with the number of foreign ancestors of an individual and his or her ABO blood group and color vision. There is also evidence that Carabelli's cusp serves better as an ethnic marker in a mixed population such as ours than does shovel-shaped incisors. This is thought to be due to the less complicated genetic basis of the former. It is also shown that the two traits are independent in their expression.     

Individuals and society in anthropological theory

Conclusion Though relatively little direct attention has been given by Marxist anthropologists to a theory of individual behavior and thought in relation to societal processes, the above partial summary indicates the wealth of insight that is available for elaborating such a theory. In addition, there are of course significant developments in the field of psychology, notably the attention to activity as central to individual personality [], the renewed concern with levels of integration theory [], and the burgeoning interest in Vygotsky's writings on language, thought, and culture []. There are also the continuing attempts to locate Freud's positive contributions in a historical materialist frame [].Where, then, is psychological anthropology? As always, producing a richness of suggestive materials — such as those on varying conceptions of the self — but, as a glance at the pages of Ethos will show, unfortunately not engaged in fundamental theoretical innovation. By way of illustration, let me cite Spindler's The Making of Psychological Anthropology, a collection of articles by major figures, past and present. Spindler's introductory essay is thoughtful; always the teacher, he presents with consideration and modesty the history of the field, the disfavor into which it fell (in large part due to the methodlogical travesties of national character studies), and its stubborn persistence (following from the pervasive interest in the psychological dimension that has always characterized cultural anthropology). He summarizes ongoing problems as perceived from within the field, and as the major difficulty to be overcome pinpoints cultural overdeterminism and its inadequacy for explaining variations. The solution? Not the necessity of respecting history and focussing on how individuals variously understand and relate (according to their individual histories) to the established structures whereby particular societies produce, allocate, and consume basic goods, and how they variously respond to disjunctions in these structures even as they reproduce them. Instead Spindler writes, ... if we are to escape the double bind of our cultural overdeterminism, we are going to have to go beyond culture and even ecology, to biochemistry, to physiology and neurology, to genetics — to biology in the broadest sense of the term [].In closing, let me say to the reader, do not simply turn away in dismay. One must conclude that it is imperative to continue to build a solid alternative theory of relations among individual behaviors, individual understandings, cultural values, and societal processes, or, in other words, to replace a non-historical and essentially biological paradigm with a dialectical and materialist view of human action.Eleanor Leacock is Professor of Anthropology and Chair at the City College, City University of New York.

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The roots of ethics: an anthropological approach

The roots of ethics are to be found within man's freedom and his ability to pursue values from the choices he makes. These values may be sought within the structure of the human being. Some of these values will correspond to man's vital needs (such as socializing, cooperation, family ties, etc.), yet they are not to be interpreted as being genetically determined, since they are consciously interiorized and experienced and planned at both individual and group level. Other values, such as religion, a moral sense, or art transcend those needs strictly linked with physical life. These values may be considered to be “natural universals” or ‘trans-cultural” values because they are to be found in various cultures. The fact that they offer man an advantage, does not necessarily mean that they are genetically determined or that they have been fixed through selection processes. These can be extended to include the values that have matured from the historical experience of single human beings and groups. The transcendental value of the person-man as opposed to infra-human beings, has also been confirmed as a priority criterion for value judgements and for a rational ethics, particularly within the field of bio-ethics.     

Voluntary medical male circumcision: a cross-sectional study comparing circumcision self-report and physical examination findings in Lesotho

Background

Overwhelming evidence, including three clinical trials, shows that male circumcision (MC) reduces the risk of HIV infection among men. However, data from recent Lesotho Demographic and Health Surveys do not demonstrate MC to be protective against HIV. These contradictory findings could partially be due to inaccurate self-reported MC status used to estimate MC prevalence. This study describes MC characteristics among men applying for Lesotho Defence Force recruitment and seeks to assess MC self-reported accuracy through comparison with physical-examination-based data.

Methods and Findings

During Lesotho Defence Force applicant screening in 2009, 241 (77%) of 312 men, aged 18–25 y, consented to a self-administered demographic and MC characteristic survey and physician-performed genital examination. The extent of foreskin removal was graded on a scale of 1 (no evidence of MC) to 4 (complete MC). MC was self-reported by 27% (n = 64/239) of participants. Of the 64 men self-reporting being circumcised, physical exam showed that 23% had no evidence of circumcision, 27% had partial circumcision, and 50% had complete circumcision. Of the MCs reportedly performed by a medical provider, 3% were Grade 1 and 73% were Grade 4. Of the MCs reportedly performed by traditional circumcisers, 41% were Grade 1, while 28% were Grade 4. Among participants self-reporting being circumcised, the odds of MC status misclassification were seven times higher among those reportedly circumcised by initiation school personnel (odds ratio = 7.22; 95% CI = 2.29–22.75).

Conclusions

Approximately 27% of participants self-reported being circumcised. However, only 50% of these men had complete MC as determined by a physical exam. Given this low MC self-report accuracy, countries scaling up voluntary medical MC (VMMC) should obtain physical-exam-based MC data to guide service delivery and cost estimates. HIV prevention messages promoting VMMC should provide comprehensive education regarding the definition of VMMC.