Liposome and epimedium polysaccharide-propolis flavone can synergistically enhance immune effect of vaccine

Three preparations of epimedium polysaccharide-propolis flavone immunopotentiator (EPI), EPI liposome, EPI suspension and EPI watery solution were prepared. In immune response test, their adjuvanticities were compared in 14-day-old chickens vaccinated with Newcastle disease (ND) vaccine. In immune protection test, the effects of the three preparations on Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection were compared in chickens vaccinated with ND vaccine then challenged with NDV. The results displayed that EPI liposome could enhance the antibody titer, T lymphocyte proliferation and the concentrations of interferon-γ and interleukin-6, when compared with the other two preparations. In EPI liposome group, the antibody titers, lymphocyte proliferation and protective rate were the highest, while the mortality and morbidity were the lowest, in comparison with the other groups. These results indicated that liposome could enhance the immune effect of EPI on ND vaccine and would be expected as the suitable dosage form of this immunopotentiator.     

Preparation and Efficacy of a Live Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine Encapsulated in Chitosan Nanoparticles

Background

Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious viral disease of poultry caused by pathogenic strains of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Live NDV vaccines are administered by drinking water, eyedrops or coarse aerosol spray. To further enhance mucosal immune responses, chitosan nanoparticles were developed for the mucosal delivery of a live NDV vaccine.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A lentogenic live-virus vaccine (strain LaSota) against NDV encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles were developed using an ionic crosslinking method. Chitosan nanoparticles containing the lentogenic live-virus vaccine against NDV (NDV-CS-NPs) were produced with good morphology, high stability, a mean diameter of 371.1 nm, an encapsulation rate of 77% and a zeta potential of +2.84 mV. The Western blotting analysis showed that NDV structural proteins were detected in NDV-CS-NPs. The virus release assay results of NDV-CS-NPs indicated that NDV was released from NDV-CS-NPs. Chickens immunized orally or intranasally with NDV-CS-NPs were fully protected whereas one out of five chickens immunized with the LaSota live NDV vaccine and three out of five chickens immunized with the inactivated NDV vaccine were dead after challenge with the highly virulent NDV strain F48E9.

Conclusions/Significance

NDV-CS-NPs induced better protection of immunized specific pathogen free chickens compared to the live NDV vaccine strain LaSota and the inactivated NDV vaccine. This study lays a foundation for the further development of mucosal vaccines and drugs encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles.     

携带新城疫病毒DNA疫苗的鼠伤寒沙门氏菌及其安全性与免疫效力

根据GenBank中发表的新城疫病毒(NDV)融合蛋白(F)基因序列,设计一对引物,通过RTPCR扩增出鹅源新城疫病毒分离株JS5F基因,测序确认后,将其克隆入真核表达载体pVAX1,获得重组真核表达质粒pVAX1F。将pVAX1F转化减毒鼠伤寒沙门氏菌SL7207,构建成携带DNA疫苗的重组沙门氏菌SL7207(pVAX1F)。重组菌以不同剂量口服免疫1日龄雏鸡,结果表明,细菌对雏鸡具有良好的安全性,且不影响鸡的增重。将SL7207(pVAX1F)分别以108CFU和109CFU的剂量3次口服免疫1日龄商品代伊莎褐蛋鸡,抗体检测结果显示,在三免后1周,SL7207(pVAX1F)109CFU剂量组的血清抗体效价与空载体组之间存在显著性差异(p<0.05)。重组菌两个剂量组在首免后2周开始出现粘膜抗体,并于二免后2周和3周达到较高水平。免疫保护试验结果显示,SL7207(pVAX1F)109CFU剂量组的保护率为77.27%,与空载体组之间存在显著性差异(p<0.05)。     

Newcastle disease vaccines

Newcastle disease (ND) is a worldwide problem with severe economic implications, affecting chickens, turkeys and other birds. Newcastle disease virus (NDV), a member of the Paramyxoviridae group can cause disease of diverse severity in accordance with environmental factors. NDV strains are classified according to their virulence into three categories. The lentogenic strains are very mild and naturally inhabit healthy flocks. They can be used as live vaccines even for young chicks. Killed vaccines can be produced from the same viruses following inactivation. Mesogenic ND viruses, which cause mild or inapparent respiratory infections, have recently been banned in many countries even for killed vaccine production due to fears of disease emergence. Velogenic strains are the causative agents of the disease and can be used for the purpose of vaccine challenge test. Production and use of Newcastle disease vaccines are discussed in this review.     

Immunization with a Thermostable Newcastle Disease Virus K148/08 Strain Originated from Wild Mallard Duck Confers Protection against Lethal Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease Virus Infection in Chickens

Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most devastating poultry infections because of its worldwide distribution and accompanying economical threat. In the present study, we characterized the ND virus (NDV) K148/08 strain from wild mallard duck, with regard to safety, thermostability, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy against velogenic ND viral infection. The NDV K148/08 strain offered enhanced immunogenicity and safety relative to commercially available vaccine strains. The NDV K148/08 strain was safe in 1-day-old SPF chicks after vaccination using a coarse or cabinet-type fine sprayer. We demonstrated that the NDV K148/08 strain elicited high levels of antibody responses and provided protective efficacy against lethal NDV challenge. In addition, the thermostability of the NDV K148/08 strain was as high as that of the thermostable V4 strain. Therefore, the NDV K148/08 strain may be useful to ensure NDV vaccine performance and effectiveness in developing countries, especially in remote areas without cold chains.     

三株新城疫病毒强毒株的生物学特性及全基因组序列分析

2009～2011年从北方发病鸡群和鸭群中分离出3株新城疫病毒（Newcastle disease virus,NDV）。通过致病性指数测定及交叉血凝抑制试验初步分析了3个毒株的毒力和相互之间的同源性。选取鸡源分离株SDLY01与新城疫疫苗株（LaSota）进行了交叉保护试验,选取鸭源毒株SD03对樱桃谷鸭进行攻毒实验,同时设计引物对3个毒株进行了全基因组测序,并与36株NDV参考株进行了分子进化分析。结果表明3个分离株F蛋白裂解位点的氨基酸序列均为112R-R-Q-K-R-F117符合强毒株的序列特征,并与致病性指数测定结果相符。交叉血凝抑制试验发现3个分离株与疫苗株LaSota 的抗原同源性较低为82.5%～89.4%,两个鸡源分离株间的抗原同源性为90%,而鸭源毒株SD03与鸡源毒株SDSG01同源性为100%。交叉保护试验和攻毒实验结果显示传统的LaSota疫苗能对SDLY01流行株提供100%免疫保护,但第5天仍检测到排毒;鸭源毒株SD03对樱桃谷鸭不致病,但能检出排毒,排毒期最长为5d。全基因组测序与分析表明3个毒株基因组长度均为15192bp,属于基因Ⅶd型毒株,与同期流行的鹅源及鸭源NDV毒株之间全基因组核苷酸序列具有高度的同源性,揭示鸭源、鹅源NDV与鸡源NDV在遗传学和流行病学上密切相关。     

Newcastle Disease Virus Fusion Protein Is the Major Contributor to Protective Immunity of Genotype-Matched Vaccine

Virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can cause devastating disease in chickens worldwide. Although the current vaccines are substantially effective, they do not completely prevent infection, virus shedding and disease. To produce genotype-matched vaccines, a full-genome reverse genetics system has been used to generate a recombinant virus in which the F protein cleavage site has been changed to that of avirulent vaccine virus. In the other strategy, the vaccines have been generated by replacing the F and HN genes of a commercial vaccine strain with those from a genotype-matched virus. However, the protective efficacy of a chimeric virus vaccine has not been directly compared with that of a full-genome virus vaccine developed by reverse genetics. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the protective efficacy of genotype VII matched chimeric vaccines by generating three recombinant viruses based on avirulent LaSota (genotype II) strain in which the open reading frames (ORFs) encoding the F and HN proteins were replaced, individually or together, with those of the circulating and highly virulent Indonesian NDV strain Ban/010. The cleavage site of the Ban/010 F protein was mutated to the avirulent motif found in strain LaSota. In vitro growth characteristics and a pathogenicity test indicated that all three chimeric viruses retained the highly attenuated phenotype of the parental viruses. Immunization of chickens with chimeric and full-length genome VII vaccines followed by challenge with virulent Ban/010 or Texas GB (genotype II) virus demonstrated protection against clinical disease and death. However, only those chickens immunized with chimeric rLaSota expressing the F or F plus HN proteins of the Indonesian strain were efficiently protected against shedding of Ban/010 virus. Our findings showed that genotype-matched vaccines can provide protection to chickens by efficiently preventing spread of virus, primarily due to the F protein.     

Evaluation of the Newcastle disease virus F and HN proteins in protective immunity by using a recombinant avian paramyxovirus type 3 vector in chickens

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) belongs to serotype 1 of the avian paramyxoviruses (APMV-1) and causes severe disease in chickens. Current live attenuated NDV vaccines are not fully satisfactory. An alternative is to use a viral vector vaccine that infects chickens but does not cause disease. APMV serotype 3 infects a wide variety of avian species but does not cause any apparent disease in chickens. In this study, we constructed a reverse-genetics system for recovery of infectious APMV-3 strain Netherlands from cloned cDNAs. Two recombinant viruses, rAPMV3-F and rAPMV3-HN, were generated expressing the NDV fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) proteins, respectively, from added genes. These viruses were used to immunize 2-week-old chickens by the oculonasal route in order to evaluate the contribution of each protein to the induction of NDV-specific neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity. Each virus induced high titers of NDV-specific hemagglutination inhibition and serum neutralizing antibodies, but the response to F protein was greater. Protective immunity was evaluated by challenging the immunized birds 21 days later with virulent NDV via the oculonasal, intramuscular, or intravenous route. With oculonasal or intramuscular challenge, all three recombinant viruses (rAPMV3, rAPMV3-F, and rAPMV3-HN) were protective, while all unvaccinated birds succumbed to death. These results indicated that rAPMV3 alone can provide cross-protection against NDV challenge. However, with intravenous challenge, birds immunized with rAPMV3 were not protected, whereas birds immunized with rAPMV3-F alone or in combination with rAPMV3-HN were completely protected, and birds immunized with rAPMV3-HN alone were partially protected. These results indicate that the NDV F and HN proteins are independent neutralization and protective antigens, but the contribution by F is greater. rAMPV3 represents an avirulent vaccine vector that can be used against NDV and other poultry pathogens.     

Newcastle disease virus-based live attenuated vaccine completely protects chickens and mice from lethal challenge of homologous and heterologous H5N1 avian influenza viruses

H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has continued to spread and poses a significant threat to both animal and human health. Current influenza vaccine strategies have limitations that prevent their effective use for widespread inoculation of animals in the field. Vaccine strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), however, have been used successfully to easily vaccinate large numbers of animals. In this study, we used reverse genetics to construct a NDV that expressed an H5 subtype avian influenza virus (AIV) hemagglutinin (HA). Both a wild-type and a mutated HA open reading frame (ORF) from the HPAIV wild bird isolate, A/Bar-headed goose/Qinghai/3/2005 (H5N1), were inserted into the intergenic region between the P and M genes of the LaSota NDV vaccine strain. The recombinant viruses stably expressing the wild-type and mutant HA genes were found to be innocuous after intracerebral inoculation of 1-day-old chickens. A single dose of the recombinant viruses in chickens induced both NDV- and AIV H5-specific antibodies and completely protected chickens from challenge with a lethal dose of both velogenic NDV and homologous and heterologous H5N1 HPAIV. In addition, BALB/c mice immunized with the recombinant NDV-based vaccine produced H5 AIV-specific antibodies and were completely protected from homologous and heterologous lethal virus challenge. Our results indicate that recombinant NDV is suitable as a bivalent live attenuated vaccine against both NDV and AIV infection in poultry. The recombinant NDV vaccine may also have potential use in high-risk human individuals to control the pandemic spread of lethal avian influenza.     

Development and in vitro characterization of a bivalent DNA containing HN and F genes of velogenic Newcastle disease virus

Newcastle disease (ND) is highly contagious, economically important viral disease affecting most of avian species worldwide. Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has single stranded negative sense RNA genome which encodes for six structural and two non-structural proteins. Envelope glycoproteins i.e. hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) and the fusion (F), elicit protective immune response. In this study, HN and F genes of velogenic (virulent) strain were amplified and cloned at multiple cloning sites A and B, respectively into pIRES bicistronic vector for use as bivalent DNA vaccine against ND. The recombinant plasmid was characterized for its orientation by restriction enzyme digestion and PCR. Expression of HN and F genes was assessed in transfected Vero cells at RNA level using RT-PCR in total RNA as well as protein level using IFAT, IPT and western blot using NDV specific antiserum. All these experiments confirmed that HN and F genes cloned in recombinant pIRES.nd.hn.f are functionally active. The recombinant construct is being evaluated as DNA vaccine against ND.     

A recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) expressing VP2 protein of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) protects against NDV and IBDV

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes a highly immunosuppressive disease in chickens. Currently available, live IBDV vaccines can lead to generation of variant viruses. We have developed an alternative vaccine that will not create variant IBDV. By using the reverse genetics approach, we devised a recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vector from a commonly used vaccine strain LaSota to express the host-protective immunogen VP2 of a variant IBDV strain GLS-5. The gene encoding the VP2 protein of the IBDV was inserted into the most 3'-proximal locus of a full-length NDV cDNA for high-level expression. We successfully recovered the recombinant virus, rLaSota/VP2. The rLaSota/VP2 was genetically stable, at least up to 12 serial passages in chicken embryos, and was shown to express the VP2 protein. The VP2 protein was not incorporated into the virions of recombinant virus. Recombinant rLaSota/VP2 replicated to a titer similar to that of parental NDV strain LaSota in chicken embryos and cell cultures. To assess protective efficacy of the rLaSota/VP2, 2-day-old specific-pathogen-free chickens were vaccinated with the recombinant virus and challenged with a highly virulent NDV strain Texas GB or IBDV variant strain GLS-5 at 3 weeks postvaccination. Vaccination with rLaSota/VP2 generated antibody responses against both NDV and IBDV and provided 90% protection against NDV and IBDV. Booster immunization induced higher levels of antibody responses against both NDV and IBDV and conferred complete protection against both viruses. These results indicate that the recombinant NDV can be used as a vaccine vector for other avian pathogens.     

Generation by Reverse Genetics of an Effective,Stable, Live-Attenuated Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine Based on a Currently Circulating,Highly Virulent Indonesian Strain

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can cause severe disease in chickens. Although NDV vaccines exist, there are frequent reports of outbreaks in vaccinated chickens. During 2009–2010, despite intense vaccination, NDV caused major outbreaks among commercial poultry farms in Indonesia. These outbreaks raised concern regarding the protective immunity of current vaccines against circulating virulent strains in Indonesia. In this study, we investigated whether a recombinant attenuated Indonesian NDV strain could provide better protection against prevalent Indonesian viruses. A reverse genetics system for the highly virulent NDV strain Banjarmasin/010/10 (Ban/010) isolated in Indonesia in 2010 was constructed. The Ban/010 virus is classified in genotype VII of class II NDV, which is genetically distinct from the commercial vaccine strains B1 and LaSota, which belong to genotype II, and shares only 89 and 87% amino acid identity for the protective antigens F and HN, respectively. A mutant virus, named Ban/AF, was developed in which the virulent F protein cleavage site motif “RRQKR↓F” was modified to an avirulent motif “GRQGR↓L” by three amino acid substitutions (underlined). The Ban/AF vaccine virus did not produce syncytia or plaques in cell culture, even in the presence of added protease. Pathogenicity tests showed that Ban/AF was completely avirulent. Ban/AF replicated efficiently during 10 consecutive passages in chickens and remained genetically stable. Serological analysis showed that Ban/AF induced higher neutralization and hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers against the prevalent viruses than the commercial vaccines B1 or LaSota. Both Ban/AF and commercial vaccines provided protection against clinical disease and mortality after challenge with virulent NDV strain Ban/010 (genotype VII) or GB Texas (genotype II). However, Ban/AF significantly reduced challenge virus shedding from the vaccinated birds compared to B1 vaccine. These results suggest that Ban/AF can provide better protection than commercial vaccines and is a promising vaccine candidate against NDV strains circulating in Indonesia.     

Heterologous expression,characterization and evaluation of the matrix protein from Newcastle disease virus as a target for antiviral therapies

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is an infectious agent of a large variety of birds, including chicken, which poses a real threat to the agriculture industry. Matrix (M) proteins of NDV and many other viruses perform critical functions during viral assembly and budding from the host cell. M-proteins are well conserved and therefore are potential targets for antiviral therapies. To validate this, we expressed the NDV M-protein in its native form in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and in inclusion bodies in Escherichia coli. Proper refolding of the recombinant protein produced in E. coli was verified using circular dichroism and infrared spectroscopies and electron microscopy. Immunization of chickens with the NDV M-protein elicited significant serum antibody titers. However, the antibodies conferred little protection against the ND following lethal viral challenges. We conclude that the M-protein is not exposed on the surface of the host cell or the virus at any stage during its life cycle. We discuss how the conserved M-protein can further be exploited as an antiviral drug target.     

Complete Genome Sequence of a Newcastle Disease Virus Strain Isolated from Broiler Breeder Flocks in China

In 2010 and 2011, several devastating Newcastle disease (ND) outbreaks occurred in China, affecting broilers, layers, and breeders. The CK-JSX1-201005 virus was isolated from broiler breeder flocks vaccinated with the classical ND virus (NDV) vaccine program, but laying rate decreased from 80% to 30 to 40% in the clinic. Here, we report the complete genome sequence and molecular characteristic of the CK-JSX1-201005 NDV. These findings provide additional insights into the genetic variation of NDV circulating in China and are useful for vaccine development for NDV.     

新城疫壳聚糖微球疫苗免疫效果的研究

鸡新城疫是由新城疫病毒引起的鸡的一种急性、烈性、高度接触性传染病,是危害养禽业的最严重疫病之一。控制新城疫最根本的措施是进行有效的疫苗接种,目前常用的疫苗是弱毒活疫苗和灭活疫苗,但二者在实际应用中均存在一定的局限性。口服微球疫苗可以诱导较强的粘膜免疫;同时还能够诱导产生系统的体液免疫和细胞免疫,已成为ND疫苗研究的热点。以壳聚糖为囊材,新城疫La Sota抗原液为芯材,戊二醛为交联剂,制备出新城疫壳聚糖微球疫苗,通过了实验室安全检验和效力检验。将新城疫壳聚糖微球疫苗与LaSota活疫苗和新城疫油乳剂灭活苗分别免疫SPF鸡,利用MTT、血凝抑制法(HI)和ELISA等分别检测不同疫苗免疫后的细胞免疫、体液免疫和粘膜免疫抗体IgA,并在当免疫鸡HI抗体降到23的情况下进行了攻毒试验。结果表明,新城疫壳聚糖微球疫苗安全性好,免疫后可刺激机体产生较强的细胞免疫、体液免疫和局粘膜免疫,具有较好的保护作用。     

传染性喉气管炎病毒gB基因和新城疫病毒F基因在重组禽痘病毒中共表达

在重组禽痘病毒中表达多个禽类病原的主要免疫原基因是构建多价基因工程疫苗的前提,但相关研究很少。在表达传染性喉气管炎病毒(ILTV)gB基因重组禽痘病毒的转移载体的基础上,构建了含有ILTV gB基因和新城疫病毒(NDV)F基因的重组禽痘病毒转移载体pSY-gB-F,采用脂质体转染禽痘病毒感染的鸡胚成纤维(CEF)细胞后,通过蓝斑试验筛选出重组禽痘病毒(rFPv-gB-F),并进行了6轮蚀斑纯化。Western-blot试验和间接免疫荧光试验证明ILTV gB基因和NBVF基因在rFPV-gB-F感染的CEF细胞中获得表达。为传染性喉气管炎、新城疫与鸡痘活载体多价疫苗的研制奠定基础。     

鸡新城疫病毒HeB02分离株F基因的克隆及其DNA疫苗的研究

根据GenBank报道的鸡新城疫病毒F基因序列设计了一对引物,以鸡新城疫病毒HeB02分离株基因组为模板,通过RT-PCR扩增出了1·66kb左右的F基因片段,序列分析表明HeB02株F基因与国内标准强毒株F48E9及弱毒疫苗La Sota和Clone30的F基因核苷酸序列的同源性分别为88·1%、84·9%和83·8%。将HeB02株F基因插入真核表达载体pVAX1中,构建了真核表达质粒pSV-F,通过脂质体转染COS-7细胞,SDS-PAGE分析可见表达的特异蛋白条带;Western blot、ELISA和中和试验检测结果表明:真核表达的蛋白与抗新城疫病毒的抗体发生特异性反应,说明F蛋白具有很好的免疫原性。采用活体电击法以真核表达质粒pSV-F免疫3周龄SPF鸡,剂量为50μg/只,3周后加强免疫1次,5周后以100倍鸡胚感染剂量(EID)的F基因同源病毒对所有鸡进行攻毒,攻毒前后每周分别以喉拭子进行病毒分离和HI效价测定。结果显示对照组在攻毒前一直没有检测到抗体效价,攻毒后检测效价为3·0log2±1·40,并且于攻毒后第9天全部死亡;活疫苗组和实验组免疫后第2周检测到抗体效价,第5周最高,HI效价分别为8·3log2±1·30和7·2log2±1·23,攻毒1周后HI效价分别达9·8log2±1·55和8·9log2±1·77,极显著高于对照组(P<0·01)。免疫组未分离到新城疫病毒,对照组全部分离到新城疫病毒。表明所构建的F基因真核表达质粒可作为候选基因疫苗诱导鸡产生免疫保护反应。     

Efficacy of Single Dose of a Bivalent Vaccine Containing Inactivated Newcastle Disease Virus and Reassortant Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus against Lethal HPAI and NDV Infection in Chickens

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and Newcastle disease (ND) are 2 devastating diseases of poultry, which cause great economic losses to the poultry industry. In the present study, we developed a bivalent vaccine containing antigens of inactivated ND and reassortant HPAI H5N1 viruses as a candidate poultry vaccine, and we evaluated its immunogenicity and protective efficacy in specific pathogen-free chickens. The 6∶2 reassortant H5N1 vaccine strain containing the surface genes of the A/Chicken/Korea/ES/2003(H5N1) virus was successfully generated by reverse genetics. A polybasic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin segment was replaced by a monobasic cleavage site. We characterized the reverse genetics-derived reassortant HPAI H5N1 clade 2.5 vaccine strain by evaluating its growth kinetics in eggs, minimum effective dose in chickens, and cross-clade immunogenicity against HPAI clade 1 and 2. The bivalent vaccine was prepared by emulsifying inactivated ND (La Sota strain) and reassortant HPAI viruses with Montanide ISA 70 adjuvant. A single immunization with this vaccine induced high levels of hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody titers and protected chickens against a lethal challenge with the wild-type HPAI and ND viruses. Our results demonstrate that the bivalent, inactivated vaccine developed in this study is a promising approach for the control of both HPAI H5N1 and ND viral infections.