Population and genetic outcomes 20 years after reintroducing bobcats (Lynx rufus) to Cumberland Island,Georgia USA

In 1988–1989, 32 bobcats Lynx rufus were reintroduced to Cumberland Island (CUIS), Georgia, USA, from which they had previously been extirpated. They were monitored intensively for 3 years immediately post‐reintroduction, but no estimation of the size or genetic diversity of the population had been conducted in over 20 years since reintroduction. We returned to CUIS in 2012 to estimate abundance and effective population size of the present‐day population, as well as to quantify genetic diversity and inbreeding. We amplified 12 nuclear microsatellite loci from DNA isolated from scats to establish genetic profiles to identify individuals. We used spatially explicit capture–recapture population estimation to estimate abundance. From nine unique genetic profiles, we estimate a population size of 14.4 (SE = 3.052) bobcats, with an effective population size (N _e) of 5–8 breeding individuals. This is consistent with predictions of a population viability analysis conducted at the time of reintroduction, which estimated the population would average 12–13 bobcats after 10 years. We identified several pairs of related bobcats (parent‐offspring and full siblings), but ~75% of the pairwise comparisons were typical of unrelated individuals, and only one individual appeared inbred. Despite the small population size and other indications that it has likely experienced a genetic bottleneck, levels of genetic diversity in the CUIS bobcat population remain high compared to other mammalian carnivores. The reintroduction of bobcats to CUIS provides an opportunity to study changes in genetic diversity in an insular population without risk to this common species. Opportunities for natural immigration to the island are limited; therefore, continued monitoring and supplemental bobcat reintroductions could be used to evaluate the effect of different management strategies to maintain genetic diversity and population viability. The successful reintroduction and maintenance of a bobcat population on CUIS illustrates the suitability of translocation as a management tool for re‐establishing felid populations.     

Applications and techniques for non-invasive faecal genetics research in felid conservation

Non-invasive genetic techniques utilising DNA extracted from faeces hold great promise for felid conservation research. These methods can be used to establish species distributions, model habitat requirements, analyse diet, estimate abundance and population density, and form the basis for population, landscape and conservation genetic analyses. Due to the elusive nature of most felid species, non-invasive genetic methods have the potential to provide valuable data that cannot be obtained with traditional observational or capture techniques. Thus, these methods are particularly valuable for research and conservation of endangered felid species. Here, we review recent studies that use non-invasive faecal genetic techniques to survey or study wild felids; provide an overview of field, laboratory and analysis techniques; and offer suggestions on how future non-invasive genetic studies can be expanded or improved to more effectively support conservation.     

Competitive interactions between felid species may limit the southern distribution of bobcats Lynx rufus

Bobcats are opportunistic felids occurring in a diverse range of habitats and with a widespread distribution from southern Canada to southern Mexico. To explore why the bobcat's distribution stops at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, we modelled the ecological niches, projected as potential distributions, of the felid community (bobcat Lynx rufus, puma Puma concolor, jaguar Panthera onca, margay Leopardus wiedii, jaguarundi Herpailurus yagouaroundi, and ocelot Leopardus pardalis) in southern Mexico, using occurrence data, environmental maps, the computer algorithm GARP, and a GIS platform. The resulting geographical projection of the ecological niche of bobcats extends south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, suggesting that ecological conditions exist for the establishment of populations. The overlap of the modelled distribution of the bobcat was large with that of the puma (97%), but low with that of the ocelot (44%), margay (46%), jaguar (49%), and jaguarundi (52%), the latter three having relatively similar size and feeding habits to bobcats. Moreover, an independent analysis computing a geographic co‐occurrence index showed a similar trend of geographic avoidance (values 0.15), while all felids, except bobcats, showed a geographic co‐occurrence in southern Mexico (values ranging from ?1.91 to 4.71). The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a lowland region with subtropical habitat, is unlikely to serve as a geographic and ecological barrier to bobcats. As mammal inventories have been conducted for over a century in this region with no records of bobcats, it is unlikely that bobcats are present but have just not been seen. Fossil records also provide no support for the presence of bobcats in that region in the past. Thus, competitive interactions with other felid species appear important in limiting the southern distribution of bobcats, preventing dispersal to a suitable but geographically reduced area south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.     

Learning from the past to prepare for the future: felids face continued threat from declining prey

Many contemporary species of large‐felids (≥ 15 kg) feed upon prey that are endangered, raising concern that prey population declines (defaunation) will further threaten felids. We assess the threat that defaunation presents by investigating a late Quaternary (LQ), ‘present‐natural’ counterfactual scenario. Our present‐natural counterfactual is based on predicted ranges of mammals today in the absence of any impacts of modern humans Homo sapiens through time. Data from our present‐natural counterfactual are used to understand firstly how megafauna extinction has impacted felid communities to date and secondly to quantify the threat to large‐felid communities posed by further declines in prey richness in the future. Our purpose is to identify imminent risks to biodiversity conservation and their cascading consequences and, specifically, to indicate the importance of preserving prey diversity. We pursue two lines of enquiry; first, we test whether the loss of prey species richness is a potential cause of large‐felid extinction and range loss. Second, we explore what can be learnt from the large‐scale large‐mammal LQ losses, particularly in the Americas and Europe, to assess the threat any further decline in prey species presents to large‐felids today, particularly in Africa and Asia. Large‐felid species richness was considerably greater under our present‐natural counterfactual scenario compared to the current reality. In total, 86% of cells recorded at least one additional felid species in our present‐natural counterfactual, and up to 4–5 more large‐felid species in 10% of the cells. A significant positive correlation was recorded between the number of prey species lost and the number of large‐felid species lost from a cell. Extant felids most at risk include lion and Sunda clouded leopard, as well as leopard and cheetah in parts of their range. Our results draw attention to the continuation of a trend of megafauna decline that began with the emergence of hominins in the Pleistocene.     

Nutrient digestibility and fecal characteristics are different among captive exotic felids fed a beef‐based raw diet

Nutrient digestibility has not been well characterized in exotic felids. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate differences in nutrient digestibility and fecal characteristics in five large exotic captive felid species, including bobcats, jaguars, cheetahs, Indochinese tigers, and Siberian tigers. All animals were individually housed and adapted to a beef‐based raw diet (Nebraska Brand^® Special Beef Feline, North Platte, NE) for 16 d. Total fecal collections were conducted from days 17 to 20. Fecal samples were weighed and scored on collection. Diet and fecal samples were evaluated for dry matter, organic matter, protein, fat, and energy to determine total tract digestibility. Fresh fecal samples were collected to determine fecal pH, ammonia, phenol, indole, short‐chain fatty acid, and branched‐chain fatty acid concentrations. Fecal scores were greater (P<0.01) in Indochinese tigers when compared with all other species, and cheetahs had greater (P<0.01) fecal scores than jaguars and bobcats. Fat digestibility was greater (P<0.01) in Siberian tigers, Indochinese tigers, and bobcats (96%) compared with cheetahs and jaguars (94%). Digestible energy was greater (P<0.05) in bobcats and Indochinese tigers at 93.5 and 92.9%, respectively, compared with cheetahs and jaguars, 91.6%. Fecal pH was greater (P<0.01) in bobcats compared with all other species evaluated. Indole concentrations were greater (P<0.05) in cheetahs and jaguars compared with bobcats and Indochinese tigers. Fecal ammonia concentrations were increased (P<0.05) in cheetahs compared with all other species. The beef‐based raw diet was highly digestible; however, differences in fat and digestible energy suggest that species should be considered when determining caloric needs of exotic felids. Zoo Biol 27:126–136, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Genetic structure of island populations of the endangered bat <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hipposideros turpis turpis</Emphasis>: implications for conservation

Efforts for the conservation of the endangered bat species Hipposideros turpis turpis in southern Japan are hampered by a lack of information about its biology and natural history and by the increasing effect of human activities. In an attempt to address some of the conservation challenges faced by this species, we studied the genetic structure and dispersal of intra- and interisland populations using six species-specific microsatellite markers. In particular, we sought to establish the relationship between island populations and to define effective management units for conservation. Pairwise co-ancestry index (F _ST) analysis, analysis of molecular variance, and Bayesian clustering suggested the presence of significant genetic differentiation between islands but little differentiation within them. The small Yonaguni Island population appeared to be not only geographically isolated, but also genetically isolated. This population is at the greatest risk of extinction, considering its size and low genetic variation. The larger populations on Iriomote and Ishigaki Islands are genetically related to each other to a greater degree and exhibit higher genetic variation than the Yonaguni Island population. This suggests that these two island populations should be included in a single management unit, while bats from Yonaguni Island should be managed independently and given higher priority for conservation. Actions such as defining vegetation corridors between colonies, as well as building gates at the entrance of the largest known colony, should be included in the conservation agenda of this still poorly known species.     

濒危植物居群恢复的遗传学考量

本文针对濒危植物居群的遗传多样性、生殖适合度、基因流、近交和远交衰退等遗传学问题在居群恢复过程中的应用进行了探讨。濒危植物居群的回归重建,既面临遗传多样性的迅速丧失、近交衰退等遗传风险,还因回归引种地存在较多近缘种而带来远交衰退的风险,最终导致遗传适应性降低,生境适应性变窄,繁殖和竞争能力减弱。为提高濒危物种保护的质量和效率,在构建回归居群时,应分批次从同一来源居群的不同母株采集材料,确保种源的遗传纯正性和遗传组成的多样性,还应使回归居群尽可能远离近缘广布种。另外,还需要对回归种群进行持续的监测和管理才能保证回归引种的成功。     

Hybridization Between Canada Lynx and Bobcats: Genetic Results and Management Implications

Hybridization between taxonomically similar species is an often-overlooked mechanism limiting the recovery of threatened and endangered species. We present molecular genetic data for the first time demonstrating that Canada lynx and bobcats hybridize in the wild. We verify that two microsatellite loci Lc106 and Lc110 have non-overlapping allele ranges between Canada lynx and bobcats, and that three putative lynx from Minnesota contain DNA from both bobcats and lynx. Additionally, we use a published test for the 16S rRNA region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to determine the maternal species; all hybrids had lynx mothers. Fifteen per cent (3/20) of our putative lynx samples were hybrids, although these data are not from a representative sampling effort. Hybridization may be an under-appreciated factor limiting the distribution and recovery of lynx. The presence of hybrids is thus a new factor in the population management of both species with potential implications for hunting and trapping of bobcats.     

Cryptic speciation in the ectocommensal Bdelloura candida (Platyhelminthes,Tricladida, Maricola) follows habitat specialization of the American horseshoe crab,Limulus polyphemus

In strict symbiotic associations, the genetic structure of the symbiont often mirrors that of its host, with interesting implications for population dynamics and phylogeography. An unresolved case of symbiotic specificity and phylogeographic consequence is the relationship between the marine triclad Bdelloura candida and its host, the American horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. A recent study by Riesgo et al. (2017, Marine Biology, 164, 111) identified a strong genetic break between populations of B. candida in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean but had minimal sampling around the Florida peninsula such that the exact location of the boundary zone was not specified. To solve this, a comprehensive analysis of 16S rRNA and ITS2 genetic markers was conducted from new collections around the Florida peninsula. A clear and significant genetic break was identified between populations of supposed B. candida between Cumberland Island, Georgia, and Mosquito Lagoon, Florida. This genetic break establishes two cryptic lineages, an Atlantic population as far south as Georgia and a Floridian population inclusive of the entire peninsula and Gulf of Mexico, potentially due to niche partitioning of the unique intertidal habitats of its horseshoe crab hosts in Florida. This result directly refutes the previous hypothesis that a population break exists between the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, and instead matches the genetic break of its host. Furthermore, a third cryptic lineage was identified in Key West. Overall, this work demonstrates the challenges in maintaining genetic connections between populations of both B. candida and L. polyphemus across their distributions, and poses meaningful implications for both species in the larger context of marine conservation and biodiversity.     

Assessing release protocols for Canada lynx reintroduction in colorado

Reintroductions are a common strategy to restore ecosystem integrity, especially when top predators are involved. Reintroductions are often time consuming, expensive, and controversial, and thus understanding what aspects are important for a successful program is needed. Focusing on the example of the reintroduction of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) to Colorado, we investigated how different release protocols (RP) affected mortality within the first year post-release. We found that average monthly mortality in the study area during the first year decreased with time in captivity from 0.205 (95% CI = 0.069, 0.475) for lynx having spent up to 7 days in captivity to 0.028 (95% CI = 0.012, 0.064) for lynx spending >45 days in captivity before release. Our results also suggest that keeping lynx in captivity beyond 5–6 weeks accrued little benefit in terms of monthly survival. We found that, on a monthly average basis, lynx were as likely to move out (P = 0.196, SE = 0.032) as well as back onto (P = 0.143, SE = 0.034) the reintroduction area during the first year after release. Mortality was 1.6 times greater outside of the study area, suggesting that permanent emigration and differential mortality rates on and off reintroduction areas should be factored into sample size calculations for an effective reintroduction effort. A post-release monitoring plan is critical to providing information to assess aspects of RP and to improve survival of individuals. Future lynx and other carnivore reintroductions may use our results to help design reintroduction programs including both the release and post-release monitoring protocols. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Reintroduction of the endangered and endemic plant species Cochlearia bavarica—Implications from conservation genetics

Population reintroduction is a common practice in conservation, but often fails, also due to the effects of inbreeding or outbreeding depression. Cochlearia bavarica is a strongly endangered plant species endemic to Bavaria in Germany, constantly declining since the late 1980s. Therefore, population reintroduction is intended. In this study, we analyzed genetic diversity within and genetic differentiation between all 32 remnant populations of the species in Swabia and Upper Bavaria using amplified fragment length polymorphisms. Our aim was to increase reintroduction success by providing data to avoid negative effects of inbreeding and outbreeding and to preserve the natural genetic pattern of the species. Genetic diversity within populations was low but similar to other rare and endemic species and varied strongly between populations but did not depend on population size. Our analysis revealed a strong geographic pattern of genetic variation. Genetic differentiation was strongest between Swabia and Upper Bavaria and at the population level, whereas differentiation between subpopulations was comparatively low. Isolation by distance and genetic differentiation was stronger among populations from Upper Bavaria than from Swabia. From the results of our study, we derived recommendations for a successful reintroduction of the species. We suggest using rather genetically variable than large populations as reintroduction sources. Moreover, the exchange of plant material between Swabia and Upper Bavaria should be completely avoided. Within these regions, plant material from genetically similar populations should preferably be used for reintroduction, whereas the exchange among subpopulations seems to be possible without a negative impact on genetic variation due to natural gene flow.     

Uneven Large-Scale Movement Patterns in Wild and Reintroduced Pre-Adult Bearded Vultures: Conservation Implications

After the quasi-extinction of much of the European vertebrate megafauna during the last few centuries, many reintroduction projects seek to restore decimated populations. However, the future of numerous species depends on the management scenarios of metapopulations where the flow of individuals can be critical to ensure their viability. This is the case of the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus, an Old World, large body-sized and long-lived scavenger living in mountain ranges. Although persecution in Western Europe restrained it to the Pyrenees, the species is nowadays present in other mountains thanks to reintroduction projects. We examined the movement patterns of pre-adult non-breeding individuals born in the wild population of the Pyrenees (n = 9) and in the reintroduced populations of the Alps (n = 24) and Andalusia (n = 13). Most birds were equipped with GPS-GSM radio transmitters, which allowed accurate determination of individual dispersal patterns. Two estimators were considered: i) step length (i.e., the distance travelled per day by each individual, calculated considering only successive days); and ii) total dispersal distance (i.e., the distance travelled between each mean daily location and the point of release). Both dispersal estimators showed a positive relationship with age but were also highly dependent on the source population, birds in Andalusia and Alps moving farther than in Pyrenees. Future research should confirm if differences in dispersal distances are the rule, in which case the dynamics of future populations would be strongly influenced. In summary, our findings highlight that inter-population differences can affect the flow of individuals among patches (a key aspect to ensure the viability of the European metapopulation of the endangered bearded vulture), and thus should be taken into account when planning reintroduction programs. This result also raises questions about whether similar scenarios may occur in other restoration projects of European megafauna.     

Toxoplasma gondii, Source to Sea: Higher Contribution of Domestic Felids to Terrestrial Parasite Loading Despite Lower Infection Prevalence

Environmental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii, a global zoonotic parasite, adversely impacts human and animal health. Toxoplasma is a significant cause of mortality in threatened Southern sea otters, which serve as sentinels for disease threats to people and animals in coastal environments. As wild and domestic felids are the only recognized hosts capable of shedding Toxoplasma oocysts into the environment, otter infection suggests land-to-sea pathogen transmission. To assess relative contributions to terrestrial parasite loading, we evaluated infection and shedding among managed and unmanaged feral domestic cats, mountain lions, and bobcats in coastal California, USA. Infection prevalence differed among sympatric felids, with a significantly lower prevalence for managed feral cats (17%) than mountain lions, bobcats, or unmanaged feral cats subsisting on wild prey (73–81%). A geographic hotspot of infection in felids was identified near Monterey Bay, bordering a high-risk site for otter infection. Increased odds of oocyst shedding were detected in bobcats and unmanaged feral cats. Due to their large populations, pet and feral domestic cats likely contribute more oocysts to lands bordering the sea otter range than native wild felids. Continued coastal development may influence felid numbers and distribution, increase terrestrial pathogens in freshwater runoff, and alter disease dynamics at the human–animal–environment interface.     

Ecomorphology of the African felid ensemble: The role of the skull and postcranium in determining species segregation and assembling history

Morphology of extant felids is regarded as highly conservative. Most previous studies have focussed on skull morphology, so a vacuum exists about morphofunctional variation in postcranium and its role in structuring ensembles of felids in different continents. The African felid ensemble is particularly rich in ecologically specialized felids. We studied the ecomorphology of this ensemble using 31 cranial and 93 postcranial morphometric variables measured in 49 specimens of all 10 African species. We took a multivariate approach controlling for phylogeny, with and without body size correction. Postcranial and skull + postcranial analyses (but not skull‐only analyses) allowed for a complete segregation of species in morphospace. Morphofunctional factors segregating species included body size, bite force, zeugopodial lengths and osteological features related to parasagittal leg movement. A general gradient of bodily proportions was recovered: lightly built, long‐legged felids with small heads and weak bite forces vs. the opposite. Three loose groups were recognized: small terrestrial felids, mid‐to‐large sized scansorial felids and specialized Acinonyx jubatus and Leptailurus serval. As predicted from a previous study, the assembling of the African felid ensemble during the Plio‐Pleistocene occurred by the arrival of distinct felid lineages that occupied then vacant areas of morphospace, later diversifying in the continent.     

Habitat fragmentation influences genetic diversity and differentiation: Fine‐scale population structure of Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud)

Forest fragmentation may negatively affect plants through reduced genetic diversity and increased population structure due to habitat isolation, decreased population size, and disturbance of pollen‐seed dispersal mechanisms. However, in the case of tree species, effective pollen‐seed dispersal, mating system, and ecological dynamics may help the species overcome the negative effect of forest fragmentation. A fine‐scale population genetics study can shed light on the postfragmentation genetic diversity and structure of a species. Here, we present the genetic diversity and population structure of Cercis canadensis L. (eastern redbud) wild populations on a fine scale within fragmented areas centered around the borders of Georgia–Tennessee, USA. We hypothesized high genetic diversity among the collections of C. canadensis distributed across smaller geographical ranges. Fifteen microsatellite loci were used to genotype 172 individuals from 18 unmanaged and naturally occurring collection sites. Our results indicated presence of population structure, overall high genetic diversity (H_E = 0.63, H_O = 0.34), and moderate genetic differentiation (F_ST = 0.14) among the collection sites. Two major genetic clusters within the smaller geographical distribution were revealed by STRUCTURE. Our data suggest that native C. canadensis populations in the fragmented area around the Georgia–Tennessee border were able to maintain high levels of genetic diversity, despite the presence of considerable spatial genetic structure. As habitat isolation may negatively affect gene flow of outcrossing species across time, consequences of habitat fragmentation should be regularly monitored for this and other forest species. This study also has important implications for habitat management efforts and future breeding programs.     

Phylogeography of the New Zealand blue duck (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos</Emphasis>): implications for translocation and species recovery

Translocation of individuals among extant populations is an important tool in species conservation that allows managers to supplement dwindling populations and potentially alleviate the deleterious effects of inbreeding. Ideal translocation strategy should consider historical relationships among existing populations to avoid potential disruption of population subdivision and local adaptation. Here, we examine mitochondrial sequence variation in the endangered blue duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos, a New Zealand endemic riverine specialist, to facilitate informed decision making in future translocations. Behavioural observations suggest that blue duck dispersal is limited and may result in genetic structure within and between regional populations. We analysed 894 base pairs of mitochondrial control region in 78 adult blue ducks sampled from 11 river catchments across the species’ range (representing four regions in the North Island and three regions in the South Island) and found strong and significant genetic structure both within and among islands. These results, combined with a 2.0% sequence divergence between islands, indicates that North Island and South Island blue ducks should be treated as separate management units. The relationship between genetic differentiation and geographic distance for blue ducks on the South Island conformed to an “isolation by distance” pattern. Overall, we recommend that translocations of blue ducks should not be made between the North and the South Islands and those within each island should be restricted to neighbouring catchments.     

How far is too close? restricted,sex‐biased dispersal in black‐capped vireos

Understanding the interplay of dispersal and how it translates into gene flow is key to understanding population processes, and especially so for endangered species occupying fragmented habitats. In migratory songbirds, there is evidence that long‐distance movement capabilities do not translate well into observed dispersal. Our objectives were to (i) define the fine‐scale spatial genetic structure in endangered black‐capped vireos to characterize dispersal patterns and (ii) to correlate dispersal dynamics to overall population genetic structure using a simulation approach. We sampled 160 individuals over 2 years to (i) describe the fine‐scale genetic structuring and (ii) used this information to model scenarios to compare with actual data on change in population structuring over a 100‐year interval. We found that black‐capped vireos exhibit male philopatry and restricted dispersal distances, relative to females. Our simulations also support a sex‐biased dispersal model. Additionally, we find that fragmentation related changes in rates of dispersal might be a likely cause for increasing levels of population structure over a 100‐year period. We show that restricted sex‐biased dispersal can explain population structuring in this species and that changes in dispersal rates due to fragmentation may be a continuing threat to genetic viability in this species.     

Genetic Variation and the Reproduction of Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus to Sweetwater Marsh, California

This study evaluated the genetic consequences of a reintroduction of the endangered annual plant Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus to Sweetwater Marsh (San Diego County, California). A survey of 21 enzyme loci in natural populations revealed that genetic diversity is very low and is primarily found as rare alleles at a few loci, making this species especially susceptible to the loss of alleles and heterozygosity through genetic drift. The reintroduction was performed in 1991 and 1992 by sowing seeds (collected from Tijuana Estuary) in numerous small patches of suitable habitat. For this study, leaf tissue was collected from all plants in all patches during flowering in 1995 and surveyed for genotype at the three enzyme loci that are polymorphic at Tijuana Estuary. Rare alleles were absent in 27 out of 30 patches for Pgm-1, in 17 out of 30 patches for Pgm-2, and in 10 out of 11 patches for Mdh-1. In all, half of the patches lacked any rare allele. Rare alleles tended to occur in patches with few individuals. Overall rare allele frequency was lower than in the colonies from which seeds were collected at two of the three loci, and heterozygosity was reduced. The Sweetwater Marsh population is at risk of losing most of its genetic variation at enzyme loci through the extinction of patches with few individuals. Future reintroduction attempts should attempt to create contiguous sets of patches or to periodically reseed existing patches to reduce the loss of genetic variation.     

Genetic variation in a network of natural and reintroduced populations of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe

It is generally considered that limiting the loss of genetic diversity in reintroduced populations is essential to optimize the chances of success of population restoration. Indeed, to counter founder effect in a reintroduced population we should maximize the genetic variability within the founding group but also take into account networks of natural populations in the choice of the reintroduction area. However, assessment of relevant reintroduction strategies requires long-term post-release genetic monitoring. In this study, we analyzed genetic data from a network of native and reintroduced Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) populations successfully restored in Southern Europe. Using microsatellite markers, we characterized the level of genetic diversity and degree of genetic structure within and among three native colonies, four captive founding groups and one long-term monitored reintroduced population. We also used Bayesian assignment analysis to examine recent genetic connections between the reintroduced population and the other populations. We aimed to assess the level of fragmentation among native populations, the effectiveness of random choice of founders to retain genetic variability of the species, the loss of genetic diversity in the reintroduced population and the effect of gene flow on this founder effect. Our results indicate that genetic diversity was similar in all populations but we detected signs of recent isolation for one native population. The reintroduced population showed a high immigration rate that limited loss of genetic diversity. Genetic investigations performed in native populations and post-released genetic monitoring have direct implications for founder choice and release design.     

Genetic structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cerasus jamasakura</Emphasis>, a Japanese flowering cherry,revealed by nuclear SSRs: implications for conservation

The genetic resources of a particular species of flowering cherry, Cerasus jamasakura, have high conservation priority because of its cultural, ecological and economic value in Japan. Therefore, the genetic structures of 12 natural populations of C. jamasakura were assessed using ten nuclear SSR loci. The population differentiation was relatively low (F _ST, 0.043), reflecting long-distance dispersal of seeds by animals and historical human activities. However, a neighbor-joining tree derived from the acquired data, spatial analysis of molecular variance and STRUCTURE analysis revealed that the populations could be divided into two groups: one located on Kyusyu Island and one on Honshu Island. Genetic diversity parameters such as allelic richness and gene diversity were significantly lower in the Kyushu group than the Honshu group. Furthermore, STRUCTURE analysis revealed that the two lineages were admixed in the western part of Honshu Island. Thus, although the phylogeographical structure of the species and hybridization dynamics among related species need to be evaluated in detail using several marker systems, the Kyusyu Island and Honshu Island populations should be considered as different conservation units, and the islands should be regarded as distinct seed transfer zones for C. jamasakura, especially when rapid assessments are required.