从菠菜叶绿体分离纯化Fd-NADP还原酶

叶绿体光合电子传递链光系统I(PSI)还原端的成员,包括非血红铁硫蛋白Ferredoxin(Fd)和Fd—NADP~+还原酶。此酶是一种水溶性的黄素蛋白,它调节光还原的Fd到NADP~+之间的电子传递,暗中催化Fd和 NADP~+的可逆氧化还原,故又称作Fd—NADP~+氧化还原酶,它又有转氢作用,通过此酶可还原 NAD,FMN,FAD,吲哚染料等。还原酶和 Fd,NADP~+有强亲和力,Fd和 NADP~+以1:1的比例与还原酶形成复合物。还原酶的分子量为40000,含1FAD/分子蛋白,是一电子或二电子受体。     

细菌硝基还原酶的结构与催化机制

细菌硝基还原酶(nitroreductase,NTR)属于依赖黄素单核苷酸(flavin mononucleotide,FMN)的硝基还原酶超家族,通常以二聚体形式存在。它们可利用还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(磷酸)(reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(phosphate),NAD(P)H)作为电子供体,催化多种外源硝基芳香族、醌类和黄素类化合物的还原反应,在药物的激活和解毒机制中发挥重要的作用。以研究得较为透彻的大肠杆菌NTR为代表,总结了近几年细菌NTR在结构特征、构象变化及催化特性等方面的最新研究进展。最后,对细菌NTR的研究方向进行了展望。     

磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C基因研究进展北大核心

磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C是能够水解磷脂进而生成二酰甘油和三磷酸肌醇(两种钙离子信号转导途径中的第二信使)的一种酶。在动物中研究得很透彻,含有EF手性结构域、XY催化结构域、与磷脂结合的C2结构域以及高度保守的pleckstrin同源性(PH)域,每个结构域具有各自的相应的功能;但是植物中并不含有pleckstrin同源性(PH)域,而且在植物中发现C2结构域可以在不含有XY催化结构域和EF手型结构域情况下,单独行使结合细胞质膜的功能。近些年来,一些研究也证明了磷脂酶C在植物逆境胁迫中起着重要的调控作用。该文对磷脂酶C的结构与功能及其作用机制进行概述。     

磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C基因研究进展

磷脂酰肌醇特异性磷脂酶C是能够水解磷脂进而生成二酰甘油和三磷酸肌醇(两种钙离子信号转导途径中的第二信使)的一种酶。在动物中研究得很透彻,含有EF手性结构域、XY催化结构域、与磷脂结合的C2结构域以及高度保守的pleckstrin同源性(PH)域,每个结构域具有各自的相应的功能;但是植物中并不含有pleckstrin同源性(PH)域,而且在植物中发现C2结构域可以在不含有XY催化结构域和EF手型结构域情况下,单独行使结合细胞质膜的功能。近些年来,一些研究也证明了磷脂酶C在植物逆境胁迫中起着重要的调控作用。该文对磷脂酶C的结构与功能及其作用机制进行概述。     

铁氧还素(Fd)和Fd-NADP~+还原酶的抗体血清对光合电子传递的影响

非血红铁硫蛋白Fd和含黄素蛋白Fd-NADP~+还原酶,都是光合电子传递链上的电子递体,它们催化NADP~+光还原形成NADPH,为非循环光合电子传递。我们近来的研究结果证明:DCMU(3-(3,4-二氯苯)-1,1-二甲脲)在 Fd-NADP~+还原酶的部位     

细菌双组分系统应答调控蛋白调控策略的多样性

双组分系统(TCS)是细菌感应并响应外界复杂环境最为重要的信号传导系统,一般由组氨酸激酶(HK)与应答调控蛋白(RR)构成,激酶与调控蛋白之间通过磷酸化进行信号传递.作为信号传导通路的终端,RR通常由N端高度保守的信号响应结构域(REC)和C端可变的效应结构域组成.RR的效应模块通常为DNA结合结构域.在典型的TCS信号通路中,RR磷酸化后DNA结合能力会显著增强,并形成同源二聚体参与下游靶基因的转录调控.随着研究的深入,发现RR的调控模式其实更为复杂、多样,主要表现在以下3个方面:(ⅰ)含DNA结合结构域的RR存在非典型的调控机制,如磷酸化会使RR的DNA结合能力明显降低或丧失,以及不同RR之间可形成异源二聚体;(ⅱ)RR的效应模块除了是DNA结合结构域,还可能是RNA或蛋白质结合结构域,甚至是酶催化结构域;(ⅲ)有些RR仅含REC结构域.本文对RR介导的不同调控模式进行了系统介绍,以展现TCS在感应外界信号后响应策略的多样性及灵活性.     

植物NAC膜结合转录因子的研究进展

NAC膜结合转录因子（NTLs）是NAC转录因子家族中一类带有跨膜结构蜮的转录调控因子,其N端含有高度保守的NAC结构域,C端含有跨膜结构域,在植物的生长发育、逆境胁迫应答中具有重要作用。主要介绍了植物NAC膜结合转录因子结构特点、生物学功能、作用机制等方面的最新研究进展。     

Bacillaene酮还原酶结构域的异源表达及底物特异性分析

Bacillaene生物合成过程中,聚酮合酶第一个延伸模块的酮还原酶结构域(Bac KR1)既催化α酮基的还原,也催化β酮基的还原,具有天然的底物宽泛性。为进一步研究该结构域的底物特异性,在大肠杆菌中对其进行了异源表达。体外酶学分析表明Bac KR1可以催化聚酮类底物(±)-2-甲基-3-氧代戊酸-乙酰半胱胺硫酯外消旋体的立体选择性还原,仅生成4种非对映异构体中的一种,此外Bac KR1还可以催化环己酮和对氯苯乙酮等非聚酮类底物的还原,暗示了聚酮合酶中酮还原酶结构域作为生物催化剂的潜力。     

黄素氧化还原蛋白研究进展

黄素氧化还原蛋白（flavodoxin,Fld）是一类通过非共价键与黄素单核苷酸（flavinmononucleotide,FMN）紧密结合的小黄素蛋白,在原核生物及低等真核生物中作为重要的低电势电子传递载体参与了众多的生化反应。在Fld的结构和分类、FMN与脱辅基Fld结合途径以及Fld结构与功能的关系等方面综述了近年来的相关研究进展。     

A kinetic model linking protein conformational motions, interflavin electron transfer and electron flux through a dual-flavin enzyme-simulating the reductase activity of the endothelial and neuronal nitric oxide synthase flavoprotein domains

NADPH-dependent dual-flavin enzymes provide electrons in many redox reactions, although the mechanism responsible for regulating their electron flux remains unclear. We recently proposed a four-state kinetic model that links the electron flux through a dual-flavin enzyme to its rates of interflavin electron transfer and FMN domain conformational motion [Stuehr DJ et al. (2009) FEBS J276, 3959-3974]. In the present study, we ran computer simulations of the kinetic model to determine whether it could fit the experimentally-determined, pre-steady-state and steady-state traces of electron flux through the neuronal and endothelial NO synthase flavoproteins (reductase domains of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase, respectively) to cytochrome c. We found that the kinetic model accurately fitted the experimental data. The simulations gave estimates for the ensemble rates of interflavin electron transfer and FMN domain conformational motion in the reductase domains of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase, provided the minimum rate boundary values, and predicted the concentrations of the four enzyme species that cycle during catalysis. The findings of the present study suggest that the rates of interflavin electron transfer and FMN domain conformational motion are counterbalanced such that both processes may limit electron flux through the enzymes. Such counterbalancing would allow a robust electron flux at the same time as keeping the rates of interflavin electron transfer and FMN domain conformational motion set at relatively slow levels.     

Impeded electron transfer from a pathogenic FMN domain mutant of methionine synthase reductase and its responsiveness to flavin supplementation

Methionine synthase reductase (MSR) is a diflavin oxidoreductase that transfers electrons from NADPH to oxidized cobalamin and plays a vital role in repairing inactive cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase. MSR deficiency is a recessive genetic disorder affecting folate and methionine metabolism and is characterized by elevated levels of plasma homocysteine. In this study, we have examined the molecular basis of MSR dysfunction associated with a patient mutation, A129T, which is housed in the FMN binding domain and is adjacent to a cluster of conserved acidic residues found in diflavin oxidoreductases. We show that the substitution of alanine with threonine destabilizes FMN binding without affecting the NADPH coenzyme specificity or affinity, indicating that the mutation's effects may be confined to the FMN module. The A129T MSR mutant transfers electrons to ferricyanide as efficiently as wild type MSR but the rate of cytochrome c, 2,6-dichloroindophenol, and menadione reduction is decreased 10-15 fold. The mutant is depleted in FMN and reactivates methionine synthase with 8% of the efficiency of wild type MSR. Reconstitution of A129T MSR with FMN partially restores its ability to reduce cytochrome c and to reactivate methionine synthase. Hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometric studies localize changes in backbone amide exchange rates to peptides in the FMN-binding domain. Together, our results reveal that the primary biochemical penalty associated with the A129T MSR mutant is its lower FMN content, provide insights into the distinct roles of the FAD and FMN centers in human MSR for delivering electrons to various electron acceptors, and suggest that patients harboring the A129T mutation may be responsive to riboflavin therapy.     

Intraprotein electron transfer in a two-domain construct of neuronal nitric oxide synthase: the output state in nitric oxide formation

Intersubunit intraprotein electron transfer (IET) from flavin mononucleotide (FMN) to heme is essential in nitric oxide (NO) synthesis by NO synthase (NOS). Previous crystal structures and functional studies primarily concerned an enzyme conformation, which serves as the input state for reduction of FMN by electrons from NADPH and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) in the reductase domain. To favor the formation of the output state for the subsequent IET from FMN to heme in the oxygenase domain, a novel truncated two-domain oxyFMN construct of rat neuronal NOS (nNOS), in which only the FMN and heme domains were present, was designed and expressed. The kinetics of IET between the FMN and heme domains in the nNOS oxyFMN construct in the presence and absence of added calmodulin (CaM) were directly determined using laser flash photolysis of CO dissociation in comparative studies on partially reduced oxyFMN and single-domain heme oxygenase constructs. The IET rate constant in the presence of CaM (262 s(-)(1)) was increased approximately 10-fold compared to that in the absence of CaM (22 s(-)(1)). The effect of CaM on interdomain interactions was further evidenced by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra. This work provides the first direct evidence of the CaM control of electron transfer (ET) between FMN and heme domains through facilitation of the FMN/heme interactions in the output state. Therefore, CaM controls IET between heme and FMN domains by a conformational gated mechanism. This is essential in coupling ET in the reductase domain in NOS with NO synthesis in the oxygenase domain.     

Elucidating nitric oxide synthase domain interactions by molecular dynamics

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is a multidomain enzyme that catalyzes the production of nitric oxide (NO) by oxidizing l ‐Arg to NO and L‐citrulline. NO production requires multiple interdomain electron transfer steps between the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and heme domain. Specifically, NADPH‐derived electrons are transferred to the heme‐containing oxygenase domain via the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and FMN containing reductase domains. While crystal structures are available for both the reductase and oxygenase domains of NOS, to date there is no atomic level structural information on domain interactions required for the final FMN‐to‐heme electron transfer step. Here, we evaluate a model of this final electron transfer step for the heme–FMN–calmodulin NOS complex based on the recent biophysical studies using a 105‐ns molecular dynamics trajectory. The resulting equilibrated complex structure is very stable and provides a detailed prediction of interdomain contacts required for stabilizing the NOS output state. The resulting equilibrated complex model agrees well with previous experimental work and provides a detailed working model of the final NOS electron transfer step required for NO biosynthesis.     

Determination of the redox potentials and electron transfer properties of the FAD- and FMN-binding domains of the human oxidoreductase NR1.

Human novel reductase 1 (NR1) is an NADPH dependent diflavin oxidoreductase related to cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). The FAD/NADPH- and FMN-binding domains of NR1 have been expressed and purified and their redox properties studied by stopped-flow and steady-state kinetic methods, and by potentiometry. The midpoint reduction potentials of the oxidized/semiquinone (-315 +/- 5 mV) and semiquinone/dihydroquinone (-365 +/- 15 mV) couples of the FAD/NADPH domain are similar to those for the FAD/NADPH domain of human CPR, but the rate of hydride transfer from NADPH to the FAD/NADPH domain of NR1 is approximately 200-fold slower. Hydride transfer is rate-limiting in steady-state reactions of the FAD/NADPH domain with artificial redox acceptors. Stopped-flow studies indicate that hydride transfer from the FAD/NADPH domain of NR1 to NADP+ is faster than hydride transfer in the physiological direction (NADPH to FAD), consistent with the measured reduction potentials of the FAD couples [midpoint potential for FAD redox couples is -340 mV, cf-320 mV for NAD(P)H]. The midpoint reduction potentials for the flavin couples in the FMN domain are -146 +/- 5 mV (oxidized/semiquinone) and -305 +/- 5 mV (semiquinone/dihydroquinone). The FMN oxidized/semiquinone couple indicates stabilization of the FMN semiquinone, consistent with (a) a need to transfer electrons from the FAD/NADPH domain to the FMN domain, and (b) the thermodynamic properties of the FMN domain in CPR and nitric oxide synthase. Despite overall structural resemblance of NR1 and CPR, our studies reveal thermodynamic similarities but major kinetic differences in the electron transfer reactions catalysed by the flavin-binding domains.     

Structure and function of NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase and nitric oxide synthase reductase domain

NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) and the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) reductase domains are members of the FAD-FMN family of proteins. The FAD accepts two reducing equivalents from NADPH (dehydrogenase flavin) and FMN acts as a one-electron carrier (flavodoxin-type flavin) for the transfer from NADPH to the heme protein, in which the FMNH*/FMNH2 couple donates electrons to cytochrome P450 at constant oxidation-reduction potential. Although the interflavin electron transfer between FAD and FMN is not strictly regulated in CPR, electron transfer is activated in neuronal NOS reductase domain upon binding calmodulin (CaM), in which the CaM-bound activated form can function by a similar mechanism to that of CPR. The oxygenated form and spin state of substrate-bound cytochrome P450 in perfused rat liver are also discussed in terms of stepwise one-electron transfer from CPR. This review provides a historical perspective of the microsomal mixed-function oxidases including CPR and P450. In addition, a new model for the redox-linked conformational changes during the catalytic cycle for both CPR and NOS reductase domain is also discussed.     

Structural basis for isozyme-specific regulation of electron transfer in nitric-oxide synthase

Three nitric-oxide synthase (NOS) isozymes play crucial, but distinct, roles in neurotransmission, vascular homeostasis, and host defense, by catalyzing Ca(2+)/calmodulin-triggered NO synthesis. Here, we address current questions regarding NOS activity and regulation by combining mutagenesis and biochemistry with crystal structure determination of a fully assembled, electron-supplying, neuronal NOS reductase dimer. By integrating these results, we structurally elucidate the unique mechanisms for isozyme-specific regulation of electron transfer in NOS. Our discovery of the autoinhibitory helix, its placement between domains, and striking similarities with canonical calmodulin-binding motifs, support new mechanisms for NOS inhibition. NADPH, isozyme-specific residue Arg(1400), and the C-terminal tail synergistically repress NOS activity by locking the FMN binding domain in an electron-accepting position. Our analyses suggest that calmodulin binding or C-terminal tail phosphorylation frees a large scale swinging motion of the entire FMN domain to deliver electrons to the catalytic module in the holoenzyme.     

Surface charge interactions of the FMN module govern catalysis by nitric-oxide synthase

The FMN module of nitric-oxide synthase (NOS) plays a pivotal role by transferring NADPH-derived electrons to the enzyme heme for use in oxygen activation. The process may involve a swinging mechanism in which the same face of the FMN module accepts and provides electrons during catalysis. Crystal structure shows that this face of the FMN module is electronegative, whereas the complementary interacting surface is electropositive, implying that charge interactions enable function. We used site-directed mutagenesis to investigate the roles of six electronegative surface residues of the FMN module in electron transfer and catalysis in neuronal NOS. Results are interpreted in light of crystal structures of NOS and related flavoproteins. Neutralizing or reversing the negative charge of each residue altered the NO synthesis, NADPH oxidase, and cytochrome c reductase activities of neuronal NOS and also altered heme reduction. The largest effects occurred at the NOS-specific charged residue Glu(762). Together, the results suggest that electrostatic interactions of the FMN module help to regulate electron transfer and to minimize flavin autoxidation and the generation of reactive oxygen species during NOS catalysis.     

Exploring the electron transfer properties of neuronal nitric-oxide synthase by reversal of the FMN redox potential

In nitric-oxide synthase (NOS) the FMN can exist as the fully oxidized (ox), the one-electron reduced semiquinone (sq), or the two-electron fully reduced hydroquinone (hq). In NOS and microsomal cytochrome P450 reductase the sq/hq redox potential is lower than that of the ox/sq couple, and hence it is the hq form of FMN that delivers electrons to the heme. Like NOS, cytochrome P450BM3 has the FAD/FMN reductase fused to the C-terminal end of the heme domain, but in P450BM3 the ox/sq and sq/hq redox couples are reversed, so it is the sq that transfers electrons to the heme. This difference is due to an extra Gly residue found in the FMN binding loop in NOS compared with P450BM3. We have deleted residue Gly-810 from the FMN binding loop in neuronal NOS (nNOS) to give Delta G810 so that the shorter binding loop mimics that in cytochrome P450BM3. As expected, the ox/sq redox potential now is lower than the sq/hq couple. Delta G810 exhibits lower NO synthase activity but normal levels of cytochrome c reductase activity. However, unlike the wild-type enzyme, the cytochrome c reductase activity of Delta G810 is insensitive to calmodulin binding. In addition, calmodulin binding to Delta G810 does not result in a large increase in FMN fluorescence as in wild-type nNOS. These results indicate that the FMN domain in Delta G810 is locked in a unique conformation that is no longer sensitive to calmodulin binding and resembles the "on" output state of the calmodulin-bound wild-type nNOS with respect to the cytochrome c reduction activity.     

Identification of Redox Partners and Development of a Novel Chimeric Bacterial Nitric Oxide Synthase for Structure Activity Analyses

Production of nitric oxide (NO) by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) requires electrons to reduce the heme iron for substrate oxidation. Both FAD and FMN flavin groups mediate the transfer of NADPH derived electrons to NOS. Unlike mammalian NOS that contain both FAD and FMN binding domains within a single polypeptide chain, bacterial NOS is only composed of an oxygenase domain and must rely on separate redox partners for electron transfer and subsequent activity. Here, we report on the native redox partners for Bacillus subtilis NOS (bsNOS) and a novel chimera that promotes bsNOS activity. By identifying and characterizing native redox partners, we were also able to establish a robust enzyme assay for measuring bsNOS activity and inhibition. This assay was used to evaluate a series of established NOS inhibitors. Using the new assay for screening small molecules led to the identification of several potent inhibitors for which bsNOS-inhibitor crystal structures were determined. In addition to characterizing potent bsNOS inhibitors, substrate binding was also analyzed using isothermal titration calorimetry giving the first detailed thermodynamic analysis of substrate binding to NOS.