Long-term mortality and cancer risk in irradiated rhesus monkeys.

Continuous, 24-year observations on a group of 358 rhesus monkeys reveal that life shortening from exposure to protons in the energy range encountered in the Van Allen belts and solar proton events is influenced primarily by the dose rather than by the energy of radiation. Life shortening in groups exposed to similar surface doses of 138- to 2300-MeV and 32- to 55-MeV protons are not significantly different, but the low-energy protons are associated with more deaths in the early years, while the high-energy protons contribute more to mortality in later years. In males, the most significant cause of life shortening is nonleukemia cancers. In females, radiation increased the risk of endometriosis (an abnormal proliferation of the lining of the uterus) which resulted in significant mortality in the years before early detection and treatment methods were employed. Animals exposed to 55-MeV protons had a high incidence of malignant brain tumors with latent periods ranging from 13 months to 20 years. The first fatal cancer among nonirradiated controls occurred 18 years after the study began. Analysis of the dose-response data supports the 1989 guidelines of the NCRP for maximum permissible radiation exposures in astronauts (NCRP, Guidance on Radiation Received in Space Activities, Report No. 98, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Bethesda, MD, 1989).     

Radiation protection: the NCRP guidelines and some considerations for the future.

The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in the USA and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), worldwide, were formed about 1928 and have since made recommendations on appropriate levels of protection from ionizing radiation for workers and for the public. These recommendations and much of the guidance provided by these organizations have usually been adopted by regulatory bodies around the world. In the case of the NCRP, the levels have fallen from 0.1 roentgen per day in 1934 to the current 5 rem per year (a factor of about 5). The present levels recommended by both the ICRP and the NCRP correspond to reasonable levels of risk where the risks of harm from ionizing radiation are compared with the hazards of other, commonly regarded, as safe, industries. Some considerations for the future in radiation protection include trends in exposure levels (generally downward for the average exposure to workers) and improvements in risk estimation; questions of lifetime limits, de minimis levels, and partial body exposures; plus problems of high LET radiations, acceptability of risk, synergisms, and risk systems for protection.     

Malignant neoplasms after radiation therapy for peptic ulcer

Most information on radiation-related cancer risk comes from the Life Span Study (LSS) of the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Stomach cancer mortality rates are much higher in Japan than in the U.S., making the applicability of LSS findings to the U.S. population uncertain. A unique cohort of U.S. patients who were irradiated for peptic ulcer to control gastric secretion provides a different perspective on risk. Cancer mortality data were analyzed and relative risks estimated for 3719 subjects treated by radiotherapy (mean stomach dose 14.8 Gy) and/or by surgery and medication during the period 1936-1965 and followed through 1997 (average 25 years). Compared to the U.S. rates, stomach cancer mortality was significantly increased for irradiated and nonirradiated patients (observed/expected = 3.20 and 1.52, respectively). We observed strong evidence of exposure-related excess mortality from cancer of the stomach (RR 2.6, 95% CI 1.3, 5.1), pancreas (RR 2.7, 95% CI 1.5, 5.1), and lung (RR 1.5, 95% CI 1.1, 2.1), with commensurate radiation dose responses in analyses that included nonexposed patients. However, the dose responses for these cancers were not significant when restricted to exposed patients. Our excess relative risk per gray estimate of 0.20 at doses 相似文献   

Exposure to ionizing radiation and brain cancer incidence: The Life Span Study cohort

BackgroundIonizing radiation is a cause of cancer. This paper examines the effects of radiation dose and age at exposure on the incidence of brain cancer using data from the Life Span Study (LSS) of atomic bomb survivors.MethodsThe Radiation Effects Research Foundation website provides demographic details of the LSS population, estimated radiation doses at time of bomb in 1945, person years of follow-up and incident cancers from 1958 to 1998. We modelled brain cancer incidence using background-stratified Poisson regression, and compared the excess relative risk (ERR) per Gray (Gy) of brain dose with estimates from follow-up studies of children exposed to diagnostic CT scans.ResultsAfter exposure to atomic bomb radiation at 10 years of age the estimated ERR/Gy was 0.91 (90%CI 0.53, 1.40) compared with 0.07 (90%CI −0.27, 0.56) following exposure at age 40. Exposure at 10 years of age led to an estimated excess of 17 brain tumors per 100,000 person year (pyr) Gy by 60 years of age. These LSS estimates are substantially less than estimates based on follow-up of children exposed to CT scans.ConclusionEstimates of ERR/Gy for brain cancers in the LSS and haemangioma cohorts seem much smaller than estimates of risk for young persons in the early years after exposure to CT-scans. This could be due to reverse causation bias in the CT cohorts, diagnostic error, measurement error with radiation doses, loss of early follow-up in the LSS, or non-linearity of the dose-response curve.     

Effects of radiation and lifestyle factors on risks of urothelial carcinoma in the Life Span Study of atomic bomb survivors

Among the Life Span Study (LSS) of Atomic-bomb survivors, recent estimates showed that unspecified bladder cancer had high radiation sensitivity with a notably high female-to-male excess relative risk (ERR) per radiation dose ratio and were the only sites for which the ERR did not decrease with attained age. These findings, however, did not consider lifestyle factors, which could potentially confound or modify the risk estimates. This study estimated the radiation risks of the most prevalent subtype of urinary tract cancer, urothelial carcinoma, while accounting for smoking, consumption of fruit, vegetables, alcohol and level of education (a surrogate for socioeconomic status). Eligible study subjects included 105,402 (males = 42,890) LSS members who were cancer-free in 1958 and had estimated radiation doses. Members were censored due to loss of follow-up, incident cancer of another type, death, or the end of calendar year 2001. Surveys (by mail or clinical interview) gathered lifestyle data periodically for 1963-1991. There were 63,827 participants in one or more survey. Five hundred seventy-three incident urothelial carcinoma cases occurred, of which 364 occurred after lifestyle information was available. Analyses were performed using Poisson regression methods. The excess relative risk per weighted gray unit (the gamma component plus 10 times the neutron component, Gy(w)) was 1.00 (95% CI: 0.43-1.78) but the risks were not dependent upon age at exposure or attained age. Lifestyle factors other than smoking were not associated with urothelial carcinoma risk. Neither the magnitude of the radiation ERR estimate (1.00 compared to 0.96), nor the female-to-male (F:M) ERR/Gy(w) ratio (3.2 compared to 3.4) were greatly changed after accounting for all lifestyle factors. A multiplicative model of gender-specific radiation and smoking effects was the most revealing though there was no evidence of significant departures from either the additive or multiplicative joint effect models. Among the LSS cohort members with doses greater than 0.005 Gy(w) (average dose 0.21 Gy(w)), the attributable fraction of urothelial carcinoma due to radiation was 7.1% in males and 19.7% in females. Among current smokers, the attributable fraction of urothelial carcinoma due to smoking was 61% in males and 52% in females. Relative risk estimates of smoking risk were approximately two for smokers compared to nonsmokers. After adjustment for lifestyle factors, gender-specific radiation risks and the F:M ERR/Gy(w), the ratios of excess urothelial carcinoma risk were similar to the estimates without adjusting for lifestyle factors. Smoking was the primary factor responsible for excess urothelial carcinoma in this cohort. These findings led us to conclude that the radiation risk estimates of urothelial carcinoma do not appear to be strongly confounded or modified by smoking, consumption of alcohol, fruits, or vegetables, or level of education.     

Radiation exposure limits for Japanese astronauts

Starting in 2001, Japanese astronauts will live aboard the International Space Station (ISS) for 3 to 6 months a year. For astronauts, space radiation is primarily hazardous. Therefore, the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) is developing a system for Space Radiation Safety Operations. This report describes our overall image of Space Radiation Safety Operations aboard the ISS, especially our proceedings in drafting the "Space Radiation Exposure Limits for Japanese ISS Astronauts."     

Iron-ion radiation accelerates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice

Radiation exposure from a number of terrestrial sources is associated with an increased risk for atherosclerosis. Recently, concern over whether exposure to cosmic radiation might pose a similar risk for astronauts has increased. To address this question, we examined the effect of 2 to 5 Gy iron ions ((56)Fe), a particularly damaging component of cosmic radiation, targeted to specific arterial sites in male apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE(-/-)) mice. Radiation accelerated the development of atherosclerosis in irradiated portions of the aorta independent of any systemic effects on plasma lipid profiles or circulating leukocytes. Further, radiation exposure resulted in a more rapid progression of advanced aortic root lesions, characterized by larger necrotic cores associated with greater numbers of apoptotic macrophages and reduced lesional collagen compared to sham-treated mice. Intima media thickening of the carotid arteries was also exacerbated. Exposure to (56)Fe ions can therefore accelerate the development of atherosclerotic lesions and promote their progression to an advanced stage characterized by compositional changes indicative of increased thrombogenicity and instability. We conclude that the potential consequences of radiation exposure for astronauts on prolonged deep-space missions are a major concern. Knowledge gained from further studies with animal models should lead to a better understanding of the pathophysiological effects of accelerated ion radiation to better estimate atherogenic risk and develop appropriate countermeasures to mitigate its damaging effects.     

A systematic review on the effect of low-dose radiation on hearing

Numerous studies have documented the adverse effects of high-dose radiation on hearing in patients. On the other hand, radiographers are exposed to a low dose of ionizing radiation, and the effect of a low dose of radiation on hearing is quite abstruse. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to elucidate the effect of low-dose ionizing radiation on hearing. Two authors independently carried out a comprehensive data search in three electronic databases, including PUBMED/MEDLINE, CINAHL, and SCOPUS. Eligible articles were independently assessed for quality by two authors. Cochrane Risk of Bias tool was used assess quality of the included studies. Two articles met the low-dose radiation exposure criteria given by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) and National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) guidelines. Both studies observed the behavioral symptoms, pure-tone hearing sensitivity at the standard, extended high frequencies, and the middle ear functioning in low-dose radiation-exposed individuals and compared with age and gender-matched controls. One study assessed the cochlear function using transient-evoked otoacoustic emissions (TEOAE). Both studies reported that behavioral symptoms of auditory dysfunction and hearing thresholds at extended high frequencies were higher in radiation-exposed individuals than in the controls. The current systematic review concludes that the low-dose ionizing radiation may affect the hearing adversely. Nevertheless, further studies with robust research design are required to explicate the cause and effect relationship between the occupational low-dose ionizing radiation exposure and hearing.

     

NASCA report 2: Longitudinal study of relationship of exposure to space radiation and risk of lens opacity

The NASA Study of Cataract in Astronauts (NASCA) was designed to measure the impact of exposure to space radiation on progression rates of cortical, nuclear, and posterior subcapsular cataract in U.S. astronauts who have flown in space and comparison groups of astronauts who had not flown in space, and subjects with a history of military aviation. We present our analyses of 5 years of data with an average of 3.8 exams per subject. All subjects had digital lens images with the Nidek EAS 1000 Lens Imaging System. Because of high variability and skewness of opacity measures, nonparametric methods were used to test for association between rates of opacification and space radiation exposure. First, median regression was used to collapse longitudinal data into robust estimates of progression rates (opacity severity compare to time for each eye of each subject). To quantify and test for a radiation effect, median regression with the dependent variable being the maximum of the two slopes (OD and OS) per subject was then used, adjusting for the confounding variables of age, nutritional, and sun-exposure histories. Median regression showed evidence of an association between the rate of cortical progression in the worse eye with radiation dose and age. The estimated median progression rate from space radiation being 0.25 ± 0.13% lens area/Sv/year (P = 0.062). We found no relationship between radiation exposure and progression of aggregate area of posterior subcapsular cataract or nuclear progression rates. However, longer follow-up may be needed to further understand any impact of space radiation on progression rates for posterior subcapsular cataracts and nuclear cataracts, and to characterize changes to visual acuity.     

Education and training for radiation scientists: radiation research program and American Society of Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology Workshop, Bethesda, Maryland, May 12-14, 2003

Current and potential shortfalls in the number of radiation scientists stand in sharp contrast to the emerging scientific opportunities and the need for new knowledge to address issues of cancer survivorship and radiological and nuclear terrorism. In response to these challenges, workshops organized by the Radiation Research Program (RRP), National Cancer Institute (NCI) (Radiat. Res. 157, 204-223, 2002; Radiat. Res. 159, 812-834, 2003), and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (Nature, 421, 787, 2003) have engaged experts from a range of federal agencies, academia and industry. This workshop, Education and Training for Radiation Scientists, addressed the need to establish a sustainable pool of expertise and talent for a wide range of activities and careers related to radiation biology, oncology and epidemiology. Although fundamental radiation chemistry and physics are also critical to radiation sciences, this workshop did not address workforce needs in these areas. The recommendations include: (1) Establish a National Council of Radiation Sciences to develop a strategy for increasing the number of radiation scientists. The strategy includes NIH training grants, interagency cooperation, interinstitutional collaboration among universities, and active involvement of all stakeholders. (2) Create new and expanded training programs with sustained funding. These may take the form of regional Centers of Excellence for Radiation Sciences. (3) Continue and broaden educational efforts of the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ASTRO), the American Association for Cancer Research (AACR), the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA), and the Radiation Research Society (RRS). (4) Foster education and training in the radiation sciences for the range of career opportunities including radiation oncology, radiation biology, radiation epidemiology, radiation safety, health/government policy, and industrial research. (5) Educate other scientists and the general public on the quantitative, basic, molecular, translational and applied aspects of radiation sciences.     

The effect of diagnostic misclassification on non-cancer and cancer mortality dose response in A-bomb survivors.

We used the EM algorithm in the context of a joint Poisson regression analysis of cancer and non-cancer mortality in the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) Life Span Study (LSS) to assess whether the observed increased risk of non-cancer death due to radiation exposure (Shimizu et al., RERF Technical Report 02-91, 1991) can be attributed solely to misclassification of cancer as non-cancer on death certificates. We show that greater levels of dose-independent misclassification than are indicated by a series of autopsies conducted on a subset of LSS members would be required to explain the non-cancer dose response, but that a relatively small amount of dose-dependence in the misclassification of cancer would explain the result. The adjustment for misclassification also results in higher risk estimates for cancer mortality. We review applications of similar statistical methods in other contexts and discuss extensions of the methods to more than two causes of death.     

Space radiation research in Europe: flight experiments and ground-based studies

Exposure to space radiation has long been acknowledged as a potential showstopper for long-duration manned interplanetary missions. In an effort to gain more information on space radiation risk and to develop countermeasures, NASA initiated several years ago a Space Radiation Health Program, which is currently supporting biological experiments performed at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. Accelerator-based radiobiology research in the field of space radiation research is also under way in Russia and Japan. The European Space Agency (ESA) supports research in the field in three main directions: spaceflight experiments on the International Space Station; modeling and simulations of the space radiation environment and transport; and, recently, ground-based radiobiology experiments exploiting the high-energy SIS18 synchrotron at GSI in Germany (IBER program). Several experiments are currently under way within IBER, and so far, beams of C and Fe-ions at energies between 11 and 1,000 MeV/n have been used in cell and tissue targets.     

Shuttle radiation dose measurements in the International Space Station orbits.

The International Space Station (ISS) is now a reality with the start of a permanent human presence on board. Radiation presents a serious risk to the health and safety of the astronauts, and there is a clear requirement for estimating their exposures prior to and after flights. Predictions of the dose rate at times other than solar minimum or solar maximum have not been possible, because there has been no method to calculate the trapped-particle spectrum at intermediate times. Over the last few years, a tissue-equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) has been flown at a fixed mid-deck location on board the Space Shuttle in 51.65 degrees inclination flights. These flights have provided data that cover the expected changes in the dose rates due to changes in altitude and changes in solar activity from the solar minimum to the solar maximum of the current 23rd solar cycle. Based on these data, a simple function of the solar deceleration potential has been derived that can be used to predict the galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) dose rates to within +/-10%. For altitudes to be covered by the ISS, the dose rate due to the trapped particles is found to be a power-law function, rho(-2/3), of the atmospheric density, rho. This relationship can be used to predict trapped dose rates inside these spacecraft to +/-10% throughout the solar cycle. Thus, given the shielding distribution for a location inside the Space Shuttle or inside an ISS module, this approach can be used to predict the combined GCR + trapped dose rate to better than +/-15% for quiet solar conditions.     

The effects of low-dose, high-LET radiation exposure on three models of behavior in C57BL/6 mice

To investigate the behavioral consequences of exposure to whole-body irradiation such as might occur for astronauts during space flight, female C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 0, 0.1, 0.5 or 2 Gy accelerated iron ions (56Fe, Z = 26, beta = 0.9, LET = 148.2 keV/microm) of 1 GeV per nucleon using the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. Animal testing began 2 weeks after exposure and continued for 8 weeks. Under these conditions, there were few significant effects of radiation on open-field, rotorod or acoustic startle activities at any of the times examined. The lack of radiation effects in these behavioral models appears to offer reassurance to NASA mission designers. These results suggest that there may be negligible effects of HZE radiation on many behaviors during a 2-8-week period immediately after radiation.     

Transposable genetic elements, spontaneous mutations and the doubling-dose method of radiation genetic risk evaluation in man

The principal aspects of the 'doubling-dose method' currently used by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and the Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, for the evaluation of genetic radiation hazards in man are briefly reviewed. With this method, which is primarily applicable to autosomal dominant and X-linked disorders, the expected increase in risk from radiation is expressed as a fraction of the current prevalence of these disorders, and thus in relation to an understandable frame of reference. Since the doubling dose is estimated as a ratio of spontaneous to induction rates of mutations, its magnitude is susceptible to changes in either the numerator (spontaneous rate) or the denominator (induction rate). Studies during the past 20 years or so with a number of experimental systems have demonstrated the existence of mobile DNA sequences in the genome and their causal role in the origin of spontaneous mutations, although the proportion of the latter among all spontaneous mutations is not known for any species. If a major proportion of spontaneous mutations in man is mediated by these mobile DNA sequences, and if their mobility is unaltered by radiation exposures, the calculation of the doubling dose in the manner mentioned above, and its use in risk evaluations becomes questionable. However, considerations based on the organization of the human genome would suggest that it is unlikely that a major fraction of spontaneous mutations that lead to disease states in man is due to mobile genetic elements. Consequently, the use of the doubling-dose method for the evaluation of genetic radiation hazards in man would appear to be valid at the present time.     

Cancer risk from chronic exposures to chemicals and radiation: a comparison of the toxicological reference value with the radiation detriment

This article aims at comparing reference methods for the assessment of cancer risk from exposure to genotoxic carcinogen chemical substances and to ionizing radiation. For chemicals, cancer potency is expressed as a toxicological reference value (TRV) based on the most sensitive type of cancer generally observed in animal experiments of oral or inhalation exposure. A dose–response curve is established by modelling experimental data adjusted to apply to human exposure. This leads to a point of departure from which the TRV is derived as the slope of a linear extrapolation to zero dose. Human lifetime cancer risk can then be assessed as the product of dose by TRV and it is generally considered to be tolerable in a 10^–6–10^–4 range for the public in a normal situation. Radiation exposure is assessed as an effective dose corresponding to a weighted average of energy deposition in body organs. Cancer risk models were derived from the epidemiological follow-up of atomic bombing survivors. Considering a linear-no-threshold dose-risk relationship and average baseline risks, lifetime nominal risk coefficients were established for 13 types of cancers. Those are adjusted according to the severity of each cancer type and combined into an overall indicator denominated radiation detriment. Exposure to radiation is subject to dose limits proscribing unacceptable health detriment. The differences between chemical and radiological cancer risk assessments are discussed and concern data sources, extrapolation to low doses, definition of dose, considered health effects and level of conservatism. These differences should not be an insuperable impediment to the comparison of TRVs with radiation risk, thus opportunities exist to bring closer the two types of risk assessment.

     

NOREC,a Monte Carlo code for simulating electron tracks in liquid water

The work reported here was originally motivated by a discussion of Monte Carlo computer codes for electron transport in water given in Report No. 130 by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). It was pointed out (correctly) that a published depth-dose distribution calculated by the Oak Ridge electron transport code, OREC, for 800 keV electrons normally incident on a water slab was apparently in error, possibly due to inadequate treatment of elastic scattering. In this paper we describe the replacement of the original OREC elastic cross sections by current ones from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This investigation led also to the critical examination and revision of some other parts of the program, as described here. The revised code, which we have renamed NOREC, represents the first substantial review and modification of the Oak Ridge code in a number of years. We also present some comparisons of results calculated with the old and new versions and discuss their implications with respect to earlier studies. We have also written a version of NOREC in C++ language, which is available to other investigators. This paper provides a record of a response to the NCRP published statement and documentation for the revised code, NOREC.     

Issues in protection from galactic cosmic rays

Radiation risks to astronauts depend on the microscopic fluctuations of energy absorption events in specific tissues. These fluctuations depend not only on the space environment but also on the modifications of that environment by the shielding provided by structures surrounding the astronauts and the attenuation characteristics of the astronaut's body. The effects of attenuation within the shield and body depends on the tissue biological response to these microscopic fluctuations. In the absence of an accepted method for estimating astronaut risk, we examined the attenuation characteristics using conventional linear energy transfer (LET)-dependent quality factors (as one means of representing relative biological effectiveness, RBE) and a track-structure repair model to fit cell transformation (and inactivation) data in the C3H10 T1/2 mouse cell system obtained for various ion beams. Although the usual aluminum spacecraft shield is effective in reducing dose equivalent with increasing shield thickness, cell transformation rates are increased for thin aluminum shields. Clearly, the exact nature of the biological response to LET and track width is critical to evaluation of biological protection factors provided by a shield design. A significant fraction of biological injury results from the LET region above 100 keV/µm. Uncertainty in nuclear cross-sections results in a factor of 2–3 in the transmitted LET spectrum beyond depths of 15 g/cm², but even greater uncertainty is due to the combined effects of uncertainty in biological response and nuclear parameters. Clearly, these uncertainties must be reduced before the shield design can be finalised.Submitted paper presented at the International Symposium on Heavy Ion Research: Space, Radiation Protection and Therapy, Sophia-Antipolis, France, 21–24 March 1994     

Organ doses from radiation therapy in atomic bomb survivors

Previous surveys of radiation therapy among the Life Span Study (LSS) population at the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) revealed that 1,670 (1.4%) of the LSS participants received radiation treatments before 1984. The data on therapeutic radiation doses are indispensable for studying the relationship between radiation treatments and subsequent cancer occurrences. In this study, the radiation treatments were reproduced experimentally to determine the scattered radiation doses. The experiments were conducted using a female human phantom and various radiation sources, including a medium-voltage X-ray machine and a (60)Co gamma-ray source. Doses were measured using thermoluminescence dosimetry and ionization chambers. Radiation doses were determined for the salivary glands, thyroid gland, breast, lung, stomach, colon, ovary and active bone marrow. The results have been used for documenting the organ doses received by patients in previous surveys. The contribution of therapeutic irradiation to the occurrence of chromosome aberrations was studied using data on doses to active bone marrow from both radiation treatments and atomic bomb exposures in 26 RERF Adult Health Study participants. The results suggest that radiation treatments contributed to a large part of their frequencies of stable-type chromosome aberrations. The therapeutic radiation doses determined in the present study are available for investigating the effects of therapeutic irradiation on the subsequent primary cancers among atomic bomb survivors who received radiation treatments.