Family resemblance for anthropometric and blood pressure measurements in Black Caribs and Creoles from St. Vincent Island

This paper examines family resemblance for five anthropometric measurements (height, weight, triceps skinfold, upper arm circumference relaxed [UACR] and flexed [UACF] and for systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a group of adult Caribbean islanders of primarily African ancestry. Six hypotheses about family resemblance are tested by using path analysis and likelihood ratios. Significant intergenerational transmission is found only for height and UACR. For weight, UACF, and diastolic blood pressure, non-transmissible sibling resemblance is the primary component of family resemblance, although significant marital resemblance exists for diastolic blood pressure. Triceps skinfold and systolic blood pressure show no evidence of any family resemblance. Although results for highly heritable traits such as height are comparable to reports from other populations, measurements with a large contribution from common family environment or residual environmental effects, such as triceps skinfold or blood pressure, have much lower family resemblance in this population than in other populations. We hypothesize that this difference is due to the fact that adult children and their parents do not share a common household in this culture and to the presence of major nonfamilial environmental factors contributing to obesity and hypertension in this population.     

A family study of anthropometric traits in a Punjabi community: I. Introduction and familial correlations

Data on 40 anthropometric measurements from 144 nuclear families in Chandigarh, India, are presented. Most families contain a pair of monozygotic or dizygotic twins, one or more singleton siblings, and their parents. Familial correlations for age-sex standardized, normalized measurements are estimated by maximum likelihood for marital, parent-child, sibling, and twin pairs. Heterogeneity tests for sex-specific subtype correlations male-male, male-female, female-female) indicate that the sex of the relative plays no significant role in the magnitude of the familial correlations except for maternal effects and differences among male and female twin pairs for a few of the variables. Marital correlations are high for body measurements, but not for head or face variables. Twin correlations seem to indicate a higher level of heritability than correlations from other family members.     

Genetic and environmental correlations between various anthropometric and blood pressure traits among adult Samoans

Shared polygenic effects (i.e., pleiotropy) are assumed to exist for such obesity-related phenotypes as blood pressure and adiposity. It is possible to identify these shared genetic effects through bivariate genetic analyses. This analysis of 1,342 adult Samoans, across 801 pedigrees, indicates that significant heritable components (P < 0.05) ranging from 29-58% exist for weight, height, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold, body mass index, and sum of skinfolds. In general, the anthropometric measurements share additive genetic effects, as do the anthropometric measures, with blood pressure. Heritabilities for central fat distribution are not significant in this population, which could be due to a lack of power. On the other hand, heritabilities have been found in Hispanics; hence the genes responsible for central fat distribution may not be evenly distributed among populations.     

Genetic and environmental effects on growth of children from a subsistence agricultural community in southern Mexico

Sibling correlations for size attained in height, weight, sitting height, estimated leg length, the triceps skinfold, arm circumference, and estimated midarm muscle circumference were compared in 6- through 13-year-old schoolchildren grouped by household socioeconomic status. The children were residents of a Zapotec-speaking, subsistence agricultural community in the Valley of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. Sibling pairs were classified as being from high and low socioeconomic status (SES) households, and sibling correlations were computed within each SES group controlling for environmental effects derived from a factor analysis of information on household demography and land and livestock holdings. Like-sex siblings from lower SES households have significantly different correlations in four instances. Correlations are higher for leg length in lower SES brothers and higher for sitting height and weight in lower SES sisters, while the correlation for sitting height is higher in upper SES brothers. The sibling correlation results are not entirely consistent with observations on growth status by SES, particularly if the power and similarity of a common environment is the only cause of higher sibling correlations. Reduced body size under poorer socioeconomic and presumably nutritional circumstances is apparent, but it is not possible in this analysis to distinguish whether genotypic (developmental) plasticity or genetic adaptation, or both, are involved.     

Urinary electrolyte excretion,alcohol consumption,and blood pressure in the Scottish heart health study.

As part of a study of risk factors for coronary heart disease 24 hour urine collections were obtained from 7354 men and women aged 40-59 selected at random from 22 districts throughout Scotland (Scottish heart health study). The mean of two standardised measurements of blood pressure was related to the reported consumption of alcohol and measurements of height, weight, pulse rate, and electrolyte excretion. Several significant correlations were found with both systolic and diastolic pressure, but only the coefficients for age, body mass index, and pulse rate were greater than 0.1. Alcohol consumption showed a weak positive correlation with blood pressure in men. Sodium excretion showed a weak positive correlation with blood pressure in both sexes, and potassium excretion showed weak negative correlations. In multiple regression analysis age, pulse rate, body mass index, alcohol consumption, and potassium excretion had significant independent effects but sodium excretion did not. Although measuring blood pressure twice on one occasion and 24 hour urinary sodium excretion only once may have weakened any potential correlation, the most likely explantation of these results is that the relation between sodium and blood pressure in the population is weak and that potassium and alcohol are of greater importance.     

Family resemblance for components of craniofacial size and shape

Path analysis is used to analyze family resemblance for eight principal components extracted from 30 anthropometric measurements of the craniofacial complex. Based on likelihood ratio tests, the null hypothesis of no assortative mating is rejected for the nasal height component. The null hypothesis of no common sibling environmental effect is rejected for the cranial size, craniofacial breadth, and nasal height components. Finally, the hypothesis that transmission from both mother and father is equal to 1/2, consistent with simple autosomal polygenic inheritance, is rejected for components corresponding to craniofacial breadth and upper facial height, thus implicating some effect of familial environment. Transmissibility is higher for components related to cranial size and facial height than for those related to facial breadth or ear dimensions.     

Blood pressure in first 10 years of life: the Brompton study.

OBJECTIVES--To determine the normal range of blood pressure and its pattern of change in the first 10 years of life. To estimate at what age (if any) children consistently appear in one part of the blood pressure distribution and at what age familial correlations in blood pressure become significant. DESIGN--Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING--South east England. SUBJECTS--2088 children of both sexes born consecutively in Farnborough Hospital, Kent, and their parents. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE--Blood pressure measured by Doppler ultrasonography and sphygmomanometry. RESULTS--Systolic blood pressure rose from a mean of 88.5 mm Hg at age 6 months to 96.2 mm Hg at 8 years measured with a 8 cm cuff and from 89.1 mm Hg at age 5 years to 94.3 mm Hg at age 10 years measured with a 12 cm cuff. The larger cuff gave blood pressure readings about 6 mm Hg lower. This effect was independent of body weight and arm circumference. Diastolic blood pressure rose from 57.8 mm Hg at 5 years to 61.8 mm Hg at 10 years (12 cm cuff). There was only about 1 mm Hg difference between sexes. Blood pressure was correlated with weight, weight adjusted for height, height, and arm circumference at all ages studied. The correlation coefficient of repeated yearly measurements increased steadily with age from 0.28 at 2 years to 0.59 at 10 years. The correlation coefficients between child''s blood pressure and mother''s average blood pressure increased from 0.1 at age 1 year to 0.23 at age 10. CONCLUSIONS--Blood pressure changes relatively little between the ages of 6 months and 10 years. Yet because of the increasing strength of between occasion and family correlations, children are more consistently occupying a specific part of the blood pressure distribution as they grow older. Studies in children should help determine why some adults have hypertension and others do not.     

Multivariate models for human genetic analysis: aggregation, coaggregation, and tracking of systolic blood pressure and weight.

A multivariate path model parameterizing the sources of familial aggregation and coaggregation of systolic blood pressure and weight, as well as their tracking across time, is applied to longitudinal data collected in Muscatine, Iowa. Genetic, common household, and individual environmental effects, pleiotropy, and a direct regression effect of blood pressure on weight are parameterized. The sample consisted of 998 individuals distributed in 261 families of whom 601 were measured on four successive occasions. The data were divided with times 1 and 2 forming group 1, and times 3 and 4, group 2. Model fitting and estimation was performed using group 1, followed by testing the model and estimates using the data in group 2. Heritability estimates for systolic blood pressure and weight were .15 and .54, respectively. The genetic correlation between these traits was nonsignificant, but there was a significant direct regression effect. The results indicate that 30% of the full-sib correlation for systolic blood pressure is attributable to the aggregation of weight. In terms of tracking, 59% and 60% of the predicted systolic blood pressure and weight correlations, respectively, were attributable to genetic effects. Testing the model from group 1 in group 2 indicates that the qualitative relationships between blood pressure and weight are stable with time.     

Relation between pharmacodynamic and anthropometric parameters during ergometry at rest and after repeated intake of metoprolol in healthy volunteers: results of a pilot study

Metoprolol is a widely used beta1-selective beta-blocker in hypertension and tachycardia. The influence on vital signs at rest and during ergometry (exercise heart rate or blood pressure, effect areas above baseline) was investigated in a pilot study with 18 healthy volunteers (mean age 29.1 years) by means of multiple and pairwise correlation analysis. At rest, the difference between predose and day 5 values were not associated with anthropometric characteristics. During ergometry for weight and height significant negative correlations were found corresponding to marked beta-values in the multiple regression models. Therefore heart rate decreases less markedly in slim persons which should be taken into consideration in exercise tests during metoprolol intake.     

Effect of Genome and Environment on Metabolic and Inflammatory Profiles

Twin and family studies have established the contribution of genetic factors to variation in metabolic, hematologic and immunological parameters. The majority of these studies analyzed single or combined traits into pre-defined syndromes. In the present study, we explore an alternative multivariate approach in which a broad range of metabolic, hematologic, and immunological traits are analyzed simultaneously to determine the resemblance of monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs, twin-spouse pairs and unrelated, non-cohabiting individuals. A total of 517 participants from the Netherlands Twin Register, including 210 MZ twin pairs and 64 twin-spouse pairs, took part in the study. Data were collected on body composition, blood pressure, heart rate, and multiple biomarkers assessed in fasting blood samples, including lipid levels, glucose, insulin, liver enzymes, hematological measurements and cytokine levels. For all 51 measured traits, pair-wise Pearson correlations, correcting for family relatedness, were calculated across all the individuals in the cohort. Hierarchical clustering techniques were applied to group the measured traits into sub-clusters based on similarity. Sub-clusters were observed among metabolic traits and among inflammatory markers. We defined a phenotypic profile as the collection of all the traits measured for a given individual. Average within-pair similarity of phenotypic profiles was determined for the groups of MZ twin pairs, spouse pairs and pairs of unrelated individuals. The average similarity across the full phenotypic profile was higher for MZ twin pairs than for spouse pairs, and lowest for pairs of unrelated individuals. Cohabiting MZ twins were more similar in their phenotypic profile compared to MZ twins who no longer lived together. The correspondence in the phenotypic profile is therefore determined to a large degree by familial, mostly genetic, factors, while household factors contribute to a lesser degree to profile similarity.     

Heritability of eleven metabolic phenotypes in Danish and Chinese twins: A cross‐population comparison

Objectives : A twin‐based comparative study on the genetic influences in metabolic endophenotypes in two populations of substantial ethnic, environmental, and cultural differences was performed. Design and Methods : Data on 11 metabolic phenotypes including anthropometric measures, blood glucose, and lipids levels as well as blood pressure were available from 756 pairs of Danish twins (309 monozygotic and 447 dizygotic twin pairs) with a mean age of 38 years (range: 18‐67) and from 325 pairs of Chinese twins (183 monozygotic and 142 dizygotic twin pairs) with a mean age of 40.5 years (range: 18‐69). Twin modeling was performed on full and nested models with the best fitting models selected. Results : Heritability estimates were compared between Danish and Chinese samples to identify differential genetic influences on each of the phenotypes. Except for hip circumference, all other body measures exhibited similar heritability patterns in the two samples with body weight showing only a slight difference. Higher genetic influences were estimated for fasting blood glucose level in Chinese twins, whereas the Danish twins showed more genetic regulation over most lipids phenotypes. Systolic blood pressure was more genetically controlled in Danish than in Chinese twins. Conclusions : Metabolic endophenotypes show disparity in their genetic determinants in populations under distinct environmental conditions.     

ABO associations with blood pressure, serum lipids and lipoproteins, and anthropometric measures

Discriminant analysis was used to explore multivariate associations with ABO blood types in a biracial sample of 898 Bogalusa youths. Dependent variables included blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), serum lipid and lipoprotein levels (total cholesterol, alpha-, beta-, and pre-beta-lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides), and anthropometric variables (height, weight, right arm length, triceps skinfold thickness, and a computed ponderal index). Analyses performed within race showed that several variables including beta-lipoprotein cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, and the ponderal index were sufficient to discriminate between individuals possessing the B antigen (B and AB) and those not possessing the B antigen (A and O) in the White subsample. However, height in itself can account for the detected difference, B individuals being taller than non-B individuals by a mean value of 2.4 cm. A concordant, but not significant effect was found in the Black subsample. Further tests support the conclusion that the strongest association is between ABO blood type and height.     

Systolic blood pressure and systolic hypertension in adolescence of atomic bomb survivors exposed in utero

Annual medical examinations were conducted during adolescence for the in utero clinical study sample subjects exposed prenatally to the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Systolic blood pressure and several anthropometric measurements were recorded during these examinations. For 1014 persons exposed in utero, two types of longitudinal analyses were performed, for a total of 7029 observations (6.93 observations per subject) of systolic blood pressure (continuous data) and systolic hypertension (binary data) for persons aged 9 to 19 years. Body mass index (BMI) and/or body weight were considered in the analyses as potential confounders. For the measurements of systolic blood pressure, the common dose effect was 2.09 mmHg per Gy and was significant (P = 0.017). The dose by trimester interaction was suggestive (P = 0.060). A significant radiation dose effect was found in the second trimester (P = 0.001), with an estimated 4.17 mmHg per Gy, but in the first and third trimesters, radiation dose effects were not significant (P > 0.50). For prevalence of systolic hypertension, the radiation dose effect was significant (P = 0.009); the odds ratio at 1 Gy was 2.23 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.23, 4.04], and the dose by trimester interaction was not significant (P = 0.778). The dose response of systolic hypertension had no dose threshold, with a threshold point estimate of 0 Gy (95% CI: <0.0, 1.1 Gy). The dose response for systolic blood pressure was most pronounced in the second trimester, the most active organogenesis period for the organs relevant to blood pressure.     

Differences in nutritional status between rural and urban Yucatec Maya children: The importance of early life conditions

Early-life conditions shape childhood growth and are affected by urbanization and the nutritional transition. To investigate how early-life conditions (across the “first” and “second” 1000 days) are associated with rural and urban children's nutritional status, we analyzed anthropometric data from Maya children in Yucatan, Mexico. We collected weight, height and triceps skinfold measures, then computed body mass and fat mass indices (BMI/FMI), in a cross-sectional sample of 6-year-olds (urban n = 72, rural n = 66). Demographic, socioeconomic and early-life variables (birthweight/mode, rural/urban residence, household crowding) were collected by maternal interview. We statistically analyzed rural-urban differences in demographic, socioeconomic, early-life, and anthropometric variables, then created linear mixed models to evaluate associations between early-life variables and child anthropometric outcomes. Two-way interactions were tested between early-life variables and child sex, and between early-life variables and rural-urban residence. Results showed that rural children were shorter-statured, with lower overweight/obesity and cesarean delivery rates, compared to urban children. Household crowding was a negative predictor of anthropometric outcomes; the strongest effect was in boys and in urban children. Birthweight positively predicted anthropometric outcomes, especially weight/BMI. Birth mode was positively (not statistically) associated with any anthropometric outcome. Cesarean delivery was more common in boys than in girls, and predicted increased height in urban boys. In conclusion, urbanization and household crowding were the most powerful predictors of Maya 6-year-old anthropometry. The negative effects of crowding may disproportionately affect Maya boys versus girls and urban versus rural children. Early-life conditions shape Maya children's nutritional status both in the “first” and “second” 1000 days.     

Age at menarche in urban Argentinian girls: association with biological and socioeconomic factors

Age at menarche is regarded as a sensitive indicator of physical, biological, and psychosocial environment. The aim of this study was to determine the age at menarche and its association with biological and socioeconomic factors in girls from Santa Rosa (La Pampa, Argentina). An observational cross-sectional study was carried out on 1,221 schoolgirls aged 9-15 years. Menarche data were obtained by the status-quo method. Height, sitting height, weight, arm circumference, tricipital and subscapular skinfolds were measured. We also calculated body mass index, measures of body composition and proportions, and fat distribution. To assess socioeconomic factors, parents completed a self-administered questionnaire about their occupation and education, family size, household, and other family characteristics. The median age at menarche - estimated by the logit method--was 12.84 years (95% CI: 12.71, 12.97). Compared with their premenarcheal age peers, postmenarcheal girls had greater anthropometric dimensions through age 12. After this age, only height was higher in the latter group. Data were processed by fitting two logistic regressions, both including age. The first model included anthropometric variables and birth weight, while the second model included the socioeconomic variables. The significant variables derived from each model were incorporated into a new regression: height, sitting height ratio (first model), and maternal education (second model). These three variables remained significantly associated with menarche. The results suggest a relationship between linear growth and menarche and agree with those found in other populations where the advancement of menarche is associated with improved living conditions. In relatively uniform urban contexts, maternal education may be a good proxy for the standard of living.     

The influence of zygosity and chorion type on fat distribution in young adult twins consequences for twin studies.

An adverse intra-uterine environment has been associated with abdominal fat distribution in singletons. Twins often have a low birth weight and a short gestation. Therefore, they may have an increased risk to develop abdominal obesity. Furthermore, monozygotic monochorionic twins (MZ MC) have a larger intra-pair birth weight difference compared to monozygotic dichorionic twins (MZ DC). If adult anthropometry is programmed in utero, this may affect the intra-pair correlations in adulthood and, consequently, also the results from the classic twin method to estimate genetic and environmental influences. In the present study, we compared the absolute values, the intra-pair differences, and the intra-pair correlations of body mass, height, BMI, and abdominal fat distribution of 424 MZ MC, MZ DC and dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs (aged 18-34 yrs). DZ, MZ DC and MZ MC twins did not differ for most anthropometric characteristics. Only MZ women tended (p = 0.03) to accumulate more abdominal fat compared to DZ twins. Overall, the contribution of zygosity and chorion type to adult anthropometry was rather low (< or = 1.7%). Although the intra-pair birth weight difference of MZ MC pairs (10.5% in men, 12.3% in women) was significantly larger compared to that of MZ DC pairs (6.9% and 9.2% resp.), the intra-pair differences in adult anthropometry were similar for both MZ twin types. Also the intra-pair correlations of MZ MC and MZ DC pairs were strikingly alike, suggesting no significant influence of the prenatal environment on adult concordance. In conclusion, the substantial difference in the prenatal environment of MZ MC and MZ DC twins did not result in a difference in intra-pair concordance of adult anthropometry and fat distribution. Therefore, we suggest that the chorion type of MZ twins does not bias the twin design and the estimation of the genetic contribution to adult anthropometry.     

Family resemblance for cranio-facial measurements in Velanti Brahmins from Andhra Pradesh, India

Maximum likelihood estimates of familial correlations are presented for 12 cranio-facial measurements taken on 399 nuclear families from Southern India. Marital resemblance is significantly different from zero for head circumference, head breadth, minimum frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, total facial height, and nasal height, but not for bigonial breadth, nose breadth, nose depth, or ear dimensions. All other familial correlations are significantly greater than zero except for the father-daughter correlation for nasal depth. Path analysis with a TAU transmission model with sex effects reveals that family resemblance for head circumference, head length, bigonial breadth, total facial height, and nasal height, but not for bigonial breadth, nose breadth, nose depth, or ear dimensions. All other familial correlations are significantly greater than zero except for the father-daughter correlation for nasal depth. Path analysis with a TAU transmission model with sex effects breadth, and sex effects in transmission were found for head breadth and nose dimensions. Sex effects in this sample may be due to the fact that different anthropometrists were used for male and female subjects.     

Growth and nutritional status of Khasi boys in Northeast India relating to exogamous marriages and socioeconomic classes

The Khasis are one of the matrilineal tribes of Meghalaya in Northeast India. They belong to the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock, and speak the Monkhmer language of the Austro-Asiatic group. They have their own traditional religion (Niam Khasi), but about 65% of them have converted to Christianity. A few Khasi members have also embraced Islam through matrimonial relationship with immigrant Muslim males. The present study was based on a cross-sectional sample of 1,351 urban Khasi boys aged 3-18 years belonging to these three religious groups, with a view to understanding the effects of socioeconomic factors on growth and nutritional status, using anthropometric variables such as weight and height. The findings showed that about 60%, 29%, and 6% of these boys were below -2 Z-scores of the US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) references in respect of weight for age, height for age, and body mass index for age, respectively. The logistic regression coefficient (beta +/- standard error) indicated that the prevalence of low weight for age (below -2 Z-scores of the NCHS references) was positively associated with age (0.088 +/- 0.014, P<0.0001), while it was inversely associated with household income (-1.216 +/- 0.030, P<0.0001). Likewise, low height for age Z-score was negatively associated with household income (-1.056 +/- 0.130, P<0.0001), although such a relationship was not significant in the case of low body mass index for age (-0.169 +/- 0.229, P>0.05). There were also significant differences between religious groups in respect of anthropometric variables. Allowing for household income, the ANCOVA test indicated that Muslim Khasi boys, who were the offspring of intermarriages between Khasi females and immigrant Muslim males, were significantly heavier and taller than Christian and Niam Khasi boys almost across ages. From about 3-10 years of age, Muslim Khasi boys were, on average, comparable to the 5th and 25th percentiles of the NCHS references of height and weight, respectively. Although it looks as though genetic mechanisms like heterosis and/or gene flow might also be associated with the larger body size in Muslim boys, such a conjecture could only be substantiated or refuted by further studies concerning genetic and more socioeconomic data on both immigrant and nonimmigrant populations.     

Body dimensions of Indian housewives

Anthropometric dimensions of Indian housewives have been measured from the viewpoint of architectural and product design ergonomics. Altogether, 79 different body dimensions were measured on 147 urban housewives of age range varying between 21 to 56 years. The average stature and weight of Indian housewives as observed in this study were 153.2 cm (SD +/- 5.7) and 55.1 kg (SD +/- 9.7), respectively. Average values along with 5th and 95th percentile values for all measurements have been determined. Values were compared with other Indian studies. A correlation between the body height, weight, and other measurements were obtained with the help of a PDP 11/23 microcomputer. Based on the existing data ratio scale relationships between the body height and other measurements of Indian women were determined. An anthropometric data, pack is presently lacking; therefore, the findings herein can be used while determining household workplace layouts, evaluating area specifications, determining work-surface heights, clearances, reach, etc. A similar study on a larger population size for Indian women has been suggested for establishing national standards.