Application of 13C-[2] - and 13C-[1,2] acetate in metabolic labelling studies of yeast and insect cells

The advantage of using ¹³C-labelled glucose in metabolic studies is that it is an important carbon and energy source for almost all biotechnologically and medically important organisms. On the other hand, the disadvantage is its relatively high cost in the labelling experiments. Looking for cheaper alternatives we found that ¹³C-[2] acetate or ¹³C-[1,2] acetate is a prospective compound for such experiments. Acetate is well incorporated by many organisms, including mammalian and insect cell cultures as preferred source of acetyl-CoA. Our experimental results using ¹³C NMR demonstrated that acetate was efficiently incorporated into glutamate and alanine secreted by the insect cell culture. Using D-stat culture of Saccharomyces uvarum on glucose/¹³C-acetate mineral media we demonstrated that the labelling patterns of proteinogenic amino acids can be well predicted on the basis of specific substrate consumption rates using the modified scheme of yeast metabolism and stoichiometric modelling. According to this scheme aspartate and alanine in S. uvarum under the experimental conditions used is synthesised in the mitochondria. Synthesis of alanine in the mitochondria was also demonstrated for Spodoptera frugiperda. For both organisms malic enzyme was also operative. For S. uvarum it was shown that the activity of malic enzyme is sufficient for supporting the mitochondrial biosynthetic reactions with NADPH.     

Binding of MmeI Restriction–modification Enzyme to its Specific Recognition Sequence is Stimulated by <Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>-adenosyl-<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-methionine

Restriction endonucleases serve as a very good model for studying specific protein–DNA interaction. MmeI is a very interesting restriction endonuclease, but although it is useful in Serial Analysis of Gene Expression, still very little is known about the mechanism of its interaction with DNA. MmeI is a unique enzyme as besides cleaving DNA it also methylates specific sequence. For endonucleolytic activity MmeI requires Mg(II) and S-adenosyl-l-methionine (AdoMet). AdoMet is a methyl donor in the methylation reaction, but its requirement for DNA cleavage remains unclear. In the present article we investigated MmeI interaction with DNA with the use of numerous methods. Our electrophoretic mobility shift assay revealed formation of two types of specific protein–DNA complexes. We speculate that faster migrating complex consists of one protein molecule and one DNA fragment whereas, slower migrating complex, which appears in the presence of AdoMet, may be a dimer or multimer form of MmeI interacting with specific DNA. Additionally, using spectrophotometric measurements we showed that in the presence of AdoMet, MmeI protein undergoes conformational changes. We think that such change in the enzyme structure, upon addition of AdoMet, may enhance its specific binding to DNA. In the absence of AdoMet MmeI binds DNA to the much lower extent.     

Partial purification and characterization of mitochondrial DNA polymerase from Plasmodium falciparum

Mitochondria of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum (K1 strain) were isolated from mature trophozoites by differential centrifugation. The mitochondrial marker enzyme cytochrome c reductase was employed to monitor the steps of mitochondria isolation. Partial purification of DNA polymerase from P. falciparum mitochondria was performed using fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC). DNA polymerase of P. falciparum mitochondria was characterized as a γ-like DNA polymerase based on its sensitivity to the inhibitors aphidicolin, N-ethylmaleimide and 9-β- -arabinofuranosyladenine-5′-triphosphate. In contrast, the enzyme was found to be strongly resistant to 2′,3′-dideoxythymidine-5′-triphosphate (IC₅₀>400 μM) and differed in this aspect from the human homologue, possibly indicating structural differences between human and P. falciparum DNA polymerase γ. In addition, the DNA polymerase of parasite mitochondria was shown to be resistant (IC₅₀>1 mM) to the nucleotide analogue (S)-1-[3-hydroxy-2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl]adenine diphosphate (HPMPApp).     

Interaction of RecBCD enzyme with DNA damaged by gamma radiation

Summary The DNA of a gene 2 mutant (T4 2 ^–) of phage T4 is degraded by RecBCD enzyme in the bacterial cytoplasm. Under normal conditions, recBCD ⁺ cells are therefore incapable of supporting the growth of phage T4 2 ^–. Only if the nucleolytic activity of RecBCD enzyme is absent from the cytoplasm are T4 2 ^–-infected bacteria able to form plaques. We found that recBCD ⁺ cells can form plaques if, before infection with T4 2 ^–, they have been exposed to gamma radiation. It is suggested that gamma ray-induced lesions of the bacterial DNA (e.g., double-strand breaks) bind RecBCD enzyme. This binding enables the enzyme to begin to degrade the bacterial chromosome, but simultaneously prevents its degradative action on the ends of minor DNA species, such as unprotected infecting phage chromosomes. Degradation of the chromosomal DNA, which occurs during the early postirradiation period, ceases about 60 min after gamma ray exposure. The reappearance of the nucleolytic action of RecBCD enzyme on T4 2 ^– DNA accompanies the cessation of degradation of bacterial DNA. Both, this cessation and the reappearance of the nucleolytic action of RecBCD enzyme on T4 2 ^– DNA depend on a functional recA gene product. These results suggest that postirradiation DNA degradation is controlled by the recA-dependent removal of RecBCD enzyme from the damaged chromosome. By making use of the temperature-sensitive mutant recB270, we showed that RecBCD-mediated repair of gamma ray-induced lesions occurs during the early postirradiation period, i.e. during postirradiation DNA degradation. It is shown that the RecD subunit of RecBCD enzyme also participates in this repair.     

Spectrophotometric assay for online measurement of the activity of lipase immobilised on micro-magnetic particles

A spectrophotometric assay has been adapted to directly measure the activity of enzymes immobilised on insoluble magnetic particles. Three different types of lipases (Candida antarctica lipase A and B and Thermocatenulatus lanuginosus lipase) were immobilised on two types of magnetic beads. The activity of the resulting immobilised lipase preparations was measured directly in the reaction solution by using a modified p-nitrophenol ester assay using a spectrophotometer. Removal of the solid particles was not necessary prior to spectrophotometric measurement, thus allowing reliable kinetic measurements to be made rapidly. The method was effective for a wide range of magnetic bead concentrations (0.01–0.2 mg ml⁻¹). In all cases the assay could determine the bead-related specific enzyme activity. The assay was validated by comparing with a pH-stat method using p-nitrophenol palmitate as the substrate with an excellent correlation between the two methods. The utility of the spectrophotometric assay was demonstrated by applying it to identify the best combination of lipase type, activation chemistry and magnetic particle. Epoxy activation of poly vinyl alcohol-coated magnetic particles prior to immobilisation of commercial C. antarctica lipase A gave the best preparation.     

A mitochondrial nuclease is modified in Drosophila mutants (mus308) that are hypersensitive to DNA crosslinking agents

Summary The mus308 mutants of Drosophila have previously been demonstrated to be defective in an enzyme that is designated Nuclease 3 (Boyd et al. 1990b). In this study that enzyme is shown to be present in mitochondria of both wild-type flies and embryos. Since the mus308 mutants are hypersensitive to DNA crosslinking agents, Nuclease 3 is potentially required for resistance of the mitochondrial genome to such agents. In support of this hypothesis, electron microscopic studies of mus308 mutant flies that had been exposed to nitrogen mustard revealed an increased frequency of mitochondrial abnormalities. Further investigation of the defect at the enzymological level revealed that the mutants possess a new nuclease activity that is apparently a modified form of the wild-type protein. In the earlier study, enzyme extracts from mus308 mutants were found to lack an enzyme with a pl of approximately 6.2. More precisely defined assay conditions in this study revealed the appearance of a new nuclease activity with a higher pI in extracts from mutants. This observation, together with the finding that only the normal enzyme form is present in heterozygous individuals, supports the hypothesis that the mus308 locus is not the structural gene for the enzyme. Rather, the mus308 gene product is necessary for Nuclease 3 to assume the lower pI. Nuclease 3 has been partially purified and characterized from wild-type embryos. Its activity is stimulated by Mg⁺⁺ and ATP. Optimum activity is found at a pH of 5.5 and a NaCl concentration of 50–100 mM. Nuclease 3 exhibits a temperature optimum of 42°C and is insensitive to N-ethylmaleimide. The enzyme is probably membrane-associated because it exhibits a strong tendency to aggregate and detergent is required for full solubilization.     

Identification and mitotic partitioning strategies of vacuoles in the unicellular red alga <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyanidioschyzon merolae</Emphasis>

Cyanidioschyzon merolae is considered as a suitable model system for studies of organelle differentiation, proliferation and partitioning. Here, we have identified and characterized vacuoles in this organism and examined the partitioning of vacuoles using fluorescence and electron microscopy. Vacuoles were stained with the fluorescent aminopeptidase substrate 7-amino-4-chloromethylcoumarin l-arginine amide, acidotrophic dyes quinacrine and LysoTracker, and 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenyl indole, which, at a high concentration, stains polyphosphate. Vacuoles have been shown to be approximately 500 nm in diameter with a mean of around five per interphase cell. The vacuolar H⁺-ATPase inhibitor concanamycin A blocked the accumulation of quinacrine in the vacuoles, suggesting the presence of the enzyme on these membranes. Electron microscopy revealed that the vacuoles were single membrane-bound organelles with an electron-dense substance, often containing a thick layer surrounding the membrane. Immunoelectron microscopy using an anti-vacuolar-H⁺-pyrophosphatase antibody revealed the presence of the enzyme on these membranes. In interphase cells, vacuoles were distributed in the cytoplasm, while in mitotic cells they were localized adjacent to the mitochondria. Filamentous structures were observed between vacuoles and mitochondria. Vacuoles were distributed almost evenly to daughter cells and redistributed in the cytoplasm after cytokinesis. The change in localization of vacuoles also happened in microtubule-disrupted cells. Since no actin protein or filaments have been detected in C. merolae, this result suggests an intrinsic mechanism for the movement of vacuoles that differs from commonly known mechanisms mediated by microtubules and actin filaments.     

Localization of a cruciform cutting endonuclease to yeast mitochondria

We have found a cruciform cutting endonuclease in the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which localizes to the mitochondria. This activity apparently is associated with the mitochondrial inner membrane since the activity is not released into solution by osmolysis, in contrast to the matrix enzyme, isocitrate dehydrogenase. The cruciform cutting activity appears to be encoded by CCE1. This gene has been shown to encode one of the major cruciform cutting endonucleases present in a yeast cell. In ccel strains, which lack CCE1 endonuclease activity, the mitochondrial cruciform cutting endonucleolytic activity is also absent. Since CCE1 is allelic to MGT1, a gene required for the highly biased transmission of petite mitochondrial DNA in crosses between ⁺ and hypersuppressive ^– cells, it seems likely that the CCE1 endonuclease functions within mitochondria.     

Localization of a DNA topoisomerase II to mitochondria inDictyostelium discoideum: Deletion mutant analysis and mitochondrial targeting signal presequence

DNA topoisomerase II ofDictyostelium discoideum (TopA), the gene (topA) encoding which we cloned, was shown to have an additional N-terminal region which contains a putative mitochondrial targeting signal presequence. We constructed overexpression mutants which expressed the wild-type or the N-terminally deleted enzyme, and examined its localization by immunofluorescence microscopy and proteinase K digestion experiment. These experiments revealed that the enzyme is located in the mitochondria by virtue of the additional N-terminal region. Furthermore, in the cell extract depleted the enzyme by immunoprecipitation, nuclear DNA topoisomerase II activity was not decreased. These results confirmed that TopA is located in the mitochondria, even through its amino acid sequence is highly similar to those of nuclear type topoisomerase II of other organisms. Thus, this report is the first to establish the location of the mitochondrial targeting signal presequence in DNA topoisomerase II and in proteins ofD. discoideum directly by analyzing deletion mutants. Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA researcher for the Sakabe project)     

Specific detection of an oil-degrading bacterium, Corynebacterium sp. IC10, in sand microcosms by PCR using species-specific primers based on 16S rRNA gene sequences

A species-specific PCR technique to detect an oil-degrading bacterium, Corynebacterium sp. IC10, released into sand microcosms is described. PCR primers, specific to strain IC10, were designed based on 16S rRNA gene sequences and tested against both closely and distantly related bacterial strains using four primer combinations involving two forward and two reverse primers. Two sets of them were specific to the strain IC10 and Corynebacterium variabilis and one set was selected for further analysis. The PCR amplification was able to detect 1 pg template DNA of strain IC10 and 1.2×10⁴ c.f.u. of IC10 ml wet sand^–1 in the presence of 3×10⁸ Escherichia coli cells. In non-sterile sand microcosms seeded with the strain IC10, the sensitivity of detection decreased to 9.6×10⁵ c.f.u. ml wet sand^–1. The detection sensitivity thus depends on the complexity of background heterogeneous DNA of environmental samples. The assay is suitable for detection of Corynebacterium sp. IC10 in laboratory microcosms, however, cross reaction with non-oil degrading coryneforms may prohibit its use in uncharacterized systems.     

Mink lung cells as a tool for detection ofMycoplasma hyorhinis contamination in cell cultures and virus stocks

Summary In an extensive host range study ofM. hyorhinis mink lung cells (MvlLu, ATCC CCL 64) were found to be the cells of choice for the propagation of this mycoplasm, which otherwise is often difficult to grow in a cell-free medium. Furthermore, rapid plaque assay and plaque purification procedures were developed forM. hyorhinis. The titer ofM. hyorhinis grew to 1×10⁷ to 1×10⁸ pfu/ml within three d postinoculation on mink lung cells. DNA restriction enzyme analysis of the genome ofM. hyorhinis was performed. Endonucleases Bst EII and Xho I are the most suitable enzymes for cleavingM. hyorhinis DNA into distinct fragment patterns. Thus, the use of the combination mink lung cells for mycoplasma growth with subsequent restriction enzyme analysis leads to an unamibiguous detection and identification toM. hyorhinis strains even in minute amounts.     

On the mechanism of cytoplasmic male sterility in the 447 line of Vicia faba

The trait of cytoplasmic male sterility, expressed in plants bearing the 447 cytoplasm of Vicia faba, is uniquely and positively correlated with the presence of a linear double-stranded RNA molecule (dsRNA) 16.7 kb in size. Restriction enzyme digestion profiles of mitochondrial DNA isolated from fertile and cytoplasmic malesterile (CMS) lines do show a limited number of specific differences in fragment intensities and mobilities. However, mitochondria isolated from the progeny of the cross CMS × Restorer line contain DNA with an identical restriction profile as the male-sterile parent: moreover, subsequent generations are completely and permanently fertile, even upon segregation of the nuclear restoration gene. Southern hybridizations, using cDNA clones as probes, reveal homology between the CMS-associated dsRNA and the nuclear genome of both sterile and fertile lines. The regions cloned, representing approximately 22% of the total dsRNA sequence, show no homology to organelle DNA. We have not been able to stably transmit the dsRNA to fertile lines of V. faba or any other plant species, using a variety of standard virological techniques.     

Optical isolation of individual mitochondria ofPhysarum polycephalum for PCR analysis

Summary We attempted to amplify a specific region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from fewer than ten mitochondria isolated individually by microdissection or use of an optical tweezer. We selected preliminarily isolated mitochondria fromPhysarum polycephalum as the model materials and tried to amplify the mtDNA region corresponding to the specific mitochondrial plasmid of this true slime mould. For separation of a few mitochondria from the mitochondrial population, we initially used a destruction method in which excluded mitochondria were disrupted by a UV laser. However, mtDNA was still amplified, although weakly, from mitochondria that had been destroyed by the UV laser. Therefore, we used an optical tweezer to trap individual mitochondria and separate them from the others. The required number of mitochondria were separated from the mitochondrial suspension through a narrow canal of isolation buffer and used directly for PCR amplification. The results showed that the mtDNA could be amplified from at least 9 mitochondria trapped by the optical tweezer.Abbreviations DAPI 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole - EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid - mtDNA mitochondrial DNA - PCR polymerase chain reaction     

Correction of chlorophyll-defective male-sterile winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus) through organelle exchange: molecular analysis of the cytoplasm of parental lines and corrected progeny

Summary Cytoplasmic differences between male-fertile and male-sterile Brassica napus as well as Raphanus sativus were investigated. Plastids of the male-fertile B. napus were found to differ from those of male-sterile B. napus and R. sativus with respect to DNA restriction enzyme patterns. Differences between male-fertile and male-sterile B. napus mitochondria were detected not only in the restriction fragment patterns of their DNA, but also at the level of expression by in organello translation of mitochondrial polypeptides.The chlorophyll deficiency obtained upon transferral of the male-sterility-conferring radish cytoplasm to a winter variety of B. napus had been corrected earlier through protoplast fusion. The cytoplasmic composition of the corrected lines was analysed using DNA restriction analysis and in organello translation. The stability of the recombined cytoplasm in the corrected lines was confirmed by analysis of the subsequent seed-derived generation.     

Comparison of the sequences of the nagE operons from Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli K12: enhanced variability of the enzyme IIN-acetylglucosamine in regions connecting functional domains.

Summary The nagE operon, encoding the enzyme II specific for N-acetylglucosamine (EII^Nag), and adjacent DNA from the chromosome of Klebsiella pneumoniae were sequenced and compared with the corresponding sequence from Escherichia colt K12. The deduced EII^Nag sequences differ in 72 out of 651 amino acids, the K. pneumoniae sequence being three residues longer. The amino acid differences were distributed unevenly, and were most frequent in regions connecting the three functional domains of the protein. In the nagE-nagB intergenic region, two promoter, two operator, and one CAP consensus sequence with regulatory functions were highly conserved. The nag structural genes from both species were very similar (83% DNA similarity; 89% amino acid similarity) except for frequent AT to GC exchanges in the wobble base of codons in K. pneumoniae DNA relative to the E. coli DNA.     

Quantification of Fusarium culmorum in Wheat and Barley Tissues Using Real-Time PCR in Comparison with DON Content

A real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed for the specific detection of Fusarium culmorum in infected seeds. Primers and TaqMan minor groove binder probe were derived from the sequences of a F. culmorum specific PCR product. The specificity of the assay was confirmed by test in seven Fusarium species and 21 non‐Fusarium fungal species. With serial dilutions of purified genomic DNA from F. culmorum isolate B as the template, the detection limit of the assay was found to be 0.9 pg of fungal genomic DNA per reaction. A significant correlation ( = 0.982) and collinearity was found between DNA concentration and Ct (cycle threshold) values of real‐time PCR assay with serial diluted DNAs extracted from three seed samples with different deoxynivalenol (DON) content. Eight barley and nine wheat varieties infected by F. culmorum isolate B were evaluated in 1 (barley samples) and in 4 years (wheat samples). The results of real‐time PCR analysis and enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay testing for DON content were compared and a significant correlation was found for barley samples (r² = 0.935). Concerning wheat we found rather complicated relationship between Ct values and DON contents influenced by environmental conditions of field trials. The real‐time PCR assay was found to be highly specific and sensitive. It could be used in phytopathological studies and praxis.     

In vitro mitochondrial complementation in Neurospora crassa

Mitochondrial isoleucine-valine biosynthesis in strain 330a, an iv-1 mutant of Neurospora, is blocked at the dihydroxy acid dehydration step owing to a mutation in the nuclear structural gene for the specific enzyme dihydroxy acid dehydratase. Dehydratase purified from either the soluble or the mitochondrial fraction of wild-type Neurospora, and incubated in vitro with 330a mitochondria, restores valine synthesis from pyruvate-C ¹⁴ to wild type levels. Up to 29% of the restored synthesis could be attributed to the penetration of enzyme into the mitochondria. However, the bulk of the restored synthesis was found to be mediated via the secretion of dihydroxyvaline (DHV) by the mitochondria into the assay milieu, with subsequent enzymatic catalysis of this metabolite to ketovaline occurring outside the organelle. The ketovaline apparently diffuses back into mitochondria for final transamination to valine. This shunting of valine precursors in and out of mitochondria has been demonstrated to be the mechanism whereby two different populations of mitochondria isolated from mutants 330a and 305A (an iv-2 mutant lacking a functional reductoisomerase) can complement each other for the biosynthesis of valine, even when each population is enclosed in a separate dialysis bag. This observation provides the basis for a biochemical understanding of the growth complementation at the organismic level when these two iv-requiring mutants are cultured together in minimal medium.Work supported by grants GM 12323 and 2TO1 GM 00337 from the National Institutes of Health, USPHS, and a grant from the Robert A. Welch Foundation, Houston, Texas.     

Cytochromec oxidase ofEuglena gracilis: Purification,characterization, and identification of mitochondrially synthesized subunits

Cytochromec oxidase was purified from mitochondria ofEuglena gracilis and separated into 15 different polypeptide subunits by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. All 15 subunits copurify through various purification procedures, and the subunit composition of the isolated enzyme is identical to that of the immunoprecipitated one. Therefore, the 15 protein subunits represent integral components of theEuglena oxidase. In anin vitro protein-synthesizing system using isolated mitochondria, polypeptides 1–3 were radioactive labeled in the presence of [³⁵S]methionine. This further identifies these polypeptides with the three largest subunits of cytochromec oxidse encoded by mitochondrial DNA in other eukaryotic organisms. By subtraction, the other 12 subunits can be assigned to nuclear genes. The isolatedEuglena oxidase was highly active withEuglena cytochromec ₅₅₈ and has monophasic kinetics. Using horse cytochromec ₅₅₀ as a substrate, activity of the isolated oxidase was rather low. These findings correlate with the oxidase activity of mitochondrial membranes. Again, reactivity was low with cytochromec ₅₅₀ and 35-fold higher with theEuglena cytochromec ₅₅₈. The data show that the cytochromec oxidase of the protistEuglena is different from other eukaryotic cytochromec oxidases in number and size of subunits, and also with regard to kinetic properties and substrate specificity.Abbreviations kDa kilodalton - PAGE polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate - TN turnover number     

Purification and characterization of extracellular dextranase from a novel producer, Hypocrea lixii F1002, and its use in oligodextran production

Fungi were isolated from natural soil samples and screened for extracellular dextranase synthesis. The strain F1002 was identified as Hypocrea lixii using a standard internal transcribed spacer ribosomal DNA analysis and was selected for extracellular dextranase synthesis. The enzyme was purified via ammonium sulfate precipitation and Sepharose 6B chromatography, which resulted in an 8.3-fold increase in the specific activity and a 10.73% recovery. This enzyme is a monomeric protein with a molecular mass of 62 kDa, as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The purified enzyme, which was identified as an endodextranase, had an optimum pH of 5.0 and an optimum temperature of 25 °C. The dextranase activity was enhanced by Mg²⁺, Al³⁺, and especially Zn²⁺ at a low concentration, which improved its activity to 124.22%. The enzyme has a very high hydrolytic affinity toward high-molecular weight dextrans. Setting the concentrations of the H. lixii F1002 dextranase (2.31 U/mL) and dextrans (6%), as well as the reaction time (45 min), allowed the dextranase to hydrolyze dextrans of controlled molecular weights (20–70 kDa). Three types of oligodextrans with different molecular weights (namely, 69,376, 38,251, and 21,364 Da) were obtained, with a total yield of 80.32%.     

Pea chloroplast DNA primase: characterization and role in initiation of replication

A DNA primase activity was isolated from pea chloroplasts and examined for its role in replication. The DNA primase activity was separated from the majority of the chloroplast RNA polymerase activity by linear salt gradient elution from a DEAE-cellulose column, and the two enzyme activities were separately purified through heparin-Sepharose columns. The primase activity was not inhibited by tagetitoxin, a specific inhibitor of chloroplast RNA polymerase, or by polyclonal antibodies prepared against purified pea chloroplast RNA polymerase, while the RNA polymerase activity was inhibited completely by either tagetitoxin or the polyclonal antibodies. The DNA primase activity was capable of priming DNA replication on single-stranded templates including poly(dT), poly(dC), M13mp19, and M13mp19_+ 2.1, which contains the AT-rich pea chloroplast origin of replication. The RNA polymerase fraction was incapable of supporting incorporation of ³H-TTP in in vitro replication reactions using any of these single-stranded DNA templates. Glycerol gradient analysis indicated that the pea chloroplast DNA primase (115–120 kDa) separated from the pea chloroplast DNA polymerase (90 kDa), but is much smaller than chloroplast RNA polymerase. Because of these differences in size, template specificity, sensitivity to inhibitors, and elution characteristics, it is clear that the pea chloroplast DNA primase is an distinct enzyme form RNA polymerase. In vitro replication activity using the DNA primase fraction required all four rNTPs for optimum activity. The chloroplast DNA primase was capable of priming DNA replication activity on any single-stranded M13 template, but shows a strong preference for M13mp19+2.1. Primers synthesized using M13mp19+2.1 are resistant to DNase I, and range in size from 4 to about 60 nucleotides.