川西亚高山三种天然次生林土壤微生物多样性变化特征

开展川西亚高山相似土壤母质背景下天然次生林土壤微生物群落结构及其多样性探究,可加深次生林更新过程中土壤微生物群落结构变化的认知。选取川西米亚罗林区20世纪60年代采伐后经自然更新恢复形成的3种天然次生林（槭-桦阔叶林,ABB;桦-槭-冷杉针阔混交林,BAA;岷江冷杉林,AFF）,分析林下表层（0-20 cm）土壤微生物群落结构变化及其影响因素,结果显示：（1）3种林型土壤细菌Chao1和Shannon指数均极显著高于真菌,但仅真菌群落的Shannon指数差异显著,表现为BAA > ABB > AFF;（2）细菌群落优势门主要为变形杆菌门、酸杆菌门、疣微菌门、拟杆菌门、绿弯菌门,相对丰度占比超过82%;真菌群落则为子囊菌门和担子菌门,占比超过85%,AFF担子菌门相对丰度最高而子囊菌门最低。（3） RDA分析显示,土壤pH和乔木物种多样性（Shannon指数）是影响微生物群落结构变化的主导因子;土壤养分元素对细菌群落影响不显著,真菌群落主要受TN、TP含量显著影响。总体上,林型间乔木层物种多样性、土壤酸碱度及其氮磷含量是导致微生物群落结构变化的关键因素。     

Significance of Over-Mature and Decaying Trees for Carbon Stocks in a Central European Natural Spruce Forest

Old-growth forests are important stores for carbon as they may accumulate C for centuries. The alteration of biomass and soil carbon pools across the development stages of a forest dynamics cycle has rarely been quantified. We studied the above- and belowground C stocks in the five forest development stages (regeneration to decay stage) of a montane spruce (Picea abies) forest of the northern German Harz Mountains, one of Central Europe’s few forests where the natural forest dynamics have not been disturbed by man for several centuries. The over-mature and decay stages had the largest total (up to 480 Mg C ha^?1) and aboveground biomass carbon pools (200 Mg C ha^?1) with biomass C stored in dead wood in the decay stage. The soil C pool (220–275 Mg C ha^?1, 0–60 cm) was two to three times larger than in temperate lowland spruce forests and remained invariant across the forest dynamics cycle. On the landscape level, taking into account the frequency of the five forest development stages, the total carbon pool was approximately 420 Mg C ha^?1. The results evidence the high significance of over-mature and decaying stages of temperate mountain forests not only for conserving specialized forest organisms but also for their large carbon storage potential.     

Forest/environment relationships in Yosemite National Park,California, USA

Forest compositional patterns in Yosemite National Park, California, were related to environmental factors through numerical classification of forest types, arrangement of forest types along elevational and topographic gradients, and development of regression models relating basal area of common tree species to environmental variables. The eight forest types are differentiated primarily by elevation zone and secondarily by topographic setting. Lower montane forests (1200–1900 m) were divided into the Abies concolor/Calocedrus type occurring primarily on mesic sites and the Pinus ponderosa/Calocedrus type predominantly on xeric sites. Upper montane forests (1900–2500 m) included the Abies concolor/Abies magnifica type on mesic sites, the Abies magnifica/Pinus type on somewhat more xeric sites, and Juniperus occidentalis/Pinus jeffreyi woodlands on granitic domes. Subalpine forests (2500–3300 m) embraced three types: Tsuga mertensiana/Pinus forests on mesic sites, monotypic Pinus contorta forests on drier sites, and Pinus albicaulis/Pinus contorta groves at treeline. Regression models consistently included elevation and soil magnesium content as explanatory variables of species basal area totals. The two Abies spp. were negatively correlated with soil magnesium levels, whereas other montane species (e.g. Calocedrus decurrens, Pinus lambertiana, and Pinus ponderosa) exhibited positive correlation with soil magnesium. Topography and soil physical properties were only infrequently incorporated into species regression models.Abbreviations DBH= diameter at breast height (1.4 m) - DCA= detrended correspondence analysis - TWINSPAN= two-way indicator species analysis     

川西亚高山次生林恢复过程中乔木层优势种变化及其影响因子

川西亚高山森林在20世纪下半叶遭受长时期连续砍伐,形成了采伐迹地上天然次生林恢复演替序列。该研究采用空间代替时间方法,以立地条件相似的暗针叶林作为对照,分析川西亚高山暗针叶林采伐迹地上次生林自然恢复过程中乔木层优势种组成及其影响因子。结果表明:(1)研究区亚高山天然次生林恢复演替过程中,不同演替阶段土壤各养分差异显著,其中土壤总氮、土壤总磷、土壤有效磷、土壤有效氮均在针阔混交林阶段最高,土壤pH值的变化在5.42～7.39范围波动,土壤有机碳随恢复的进行而增加,土壤C/N主要集中在15左右,只有针叶林达到18.62。(2)研究区次生林以16个乔木树种为主,针叶树种主要有粗枝云杉、岷江冷杉,阔叶树种主要有红桦、青榨槭等,且不同恢复阶段的群落乔木层优势种差异显著(R_(ANOSINM)=0.439,P0.001)。(3)多元回归树分析发现,次生林乔木层优势种组成主要受林龄、土壤有机碳和总氮的影响,其中在次生林恢复演替后期(80a后),乔木层组成可能主要由于种间竞争导致,在次生林恢复演替前、中期(80a前),环境选择可能是影响乔木层组成差异的主导因素。(4)反向选择筛选结果显示,土壤总氮、海拔高度、土壤有效磷和土壤有机碳是影响乔木层优势种差异的主要因子。     

不同经营模式对川西亚高山天然次生林林地水文效应的影响

天然次生林是川西亚高山林区经历大规模砍伐后形成的主要森林类型之一,是我国西南林区水源涵养林的重要组成部分。以不同经营模式(抚育经营、清林+补植经营以及封育经营)的川西亚高山次生桦木林和桦木、岷江冷杉混交林为研究对象,通过样方取样法获取和分析了林地苔藓、枯落物和土壤的水文指标。结果表明,与封山育林经营相比,抚育经营下的两种林型的苔藓最大持水率均显著升高(F=8.147,P=0.010;F=15.525,P=0.006)、桦木林的蓄积量显著降低(F=4.979,P=0.022),而苔藓最大持水量变化不显著;混交林则均无显著变化。在清林+补植经营下,混交林苔藓水文效应变化不显著(F=2.280,P=0.183),而桦木林虽然苔藓最大持水率无显著变化(F=4.072,P=0.098),但蓄积量的显著降低(F=3.536,P=0.044)导致了其最大持水量的降低(F=3.782,P=0.042)。两种经营方式基本上促进了天然林的枯落物最大持水率、降低了林下枯落物蓄积量;其中抚育经营效果更显著,但两种经营方式下枯落物最大持水量变化不显著。两种经营方式下,桦木林和混交林的林下土壤容重均降低(F=10.715,P0.01;F=5.148,P0.05),同时桦木林土壤最大持水量增加(F=4.499,P0.05),其中抚育经营的影响程度都更显著。从4年来的短期效应来看,两种经营方式均对天然林的林地持水能力具有促进作用,抚育经营较清林+补植经营更显著,但这仅是短期的结果,两种经营方式对于退化天然林水文以及其他生态功能恢复的长期影响还有待于进一步的观测研究。     

Crossability relationships between Korean firs Abies koreana , A. nephrolepis and A. holophylla and some other representatives of the genus Abies

Artificial crossing experiments involving 3 Abies species native to Korean peninsula and 5 other representatives of Abies revealed a high hybridological affinity between Abies koreana and A. nephrolepis. Both these species are reproductively isolated from A. holophylla. All the three Korean species were found to exhibit incompatible relationships with the North American species A. concolor. The species A. holophylla and A. koreana differ also in their abilities to intercross with the Mediterranean firs. The former has been successfully crossed with A. nordmanniana, A. alba and A. cilicica exhibiting 19.1–55.3% crossability, whereas the latter produced filled seeds only with A. nordmanniana reaching 46.4% crossability. A considerable differentiation is postulated to exist between the pair of species A. koreana and A. nephrolepis on the one side and A. holophylla on the other side.     

川西亚高山暗针叶林不同恢复阶段红桦、 岷江冷杉土壤种子损耗特征

在川西亚高山米亚罗林区海拔3 100—3 600 m阴坡、半阴坡,以立地条件基本一致的箭竹和藓类林型不同恢复阶段(20—40年生的箭竹-阔叶林、藓类-阔叶林,50年生的箭竹-针阔混交林、藓类-针阔混交林、160—200年生的箭竹-暗针叶老龄林、藓类暗针叶老龄林)的群落为研究对象,于种子成熟散落前(8月)采集土壤样品,应用网筛分选法结合体视显微镜挑选种子,实验室发芽试验法和四唑染色法对种子生活力进行测定,分析了土壤内先锋树种红桦(Betula albo-sinensis)和顶极树种岷江冷杉(Abiesfaxoniana)的残余种子总数、组分及其分布格局;采用样方法调查了红桦和岷江冷杉的1年生幼苗密度。结果表明:1)随着森林的恢复,红桦的残余种子总数、外形完整种子数、发育不全种子数、空粒种子数和腐烂种子数呈减少的趋势,而岷江冷杉则相反。箭竹林型不同恢复阶段红桦的残余种子总数、外形完整种子数、发育不全种子数、空粒种子数和腐烂种子数总体上大于藓类林型相应恢复阶段。岷江冷杉的残余种子总数、外形完整种子数、发育不全种子数、空粒种子数、腐烂种子数的最大值均出现在藓类-暗针叶老林龄;2)在阔叶林和针阔混交林阶段,红桦和岷江冷杉的种子组分所占比例最高的分别为腐烂种子和发育不全种子,在暗针叶老龄林阶段,红桦的腐烂种子和空粒种子的比例位居前列,而岷江冷杉的外形完整种子比例最大;3)随着土层深度的增加,红桦和岷江冷杉的外形完整种子数、发育不全种子数、空粒种子数和腐烂种子数均呈减少的趋势。红桦和岷江冷杉不同组分的种子在枯枝落叶层所占地比例在72.85%—94.28%;4)红桦的1年生幼苗密度随着森林的恢复逐渐减小,而岷江冷杉的1年生幼苗密度随着森林的恢复逐渐增大。在8月份,土壤中已经不存在红桦和岷江冷杉有生活力的种子,两种植物的种子只能形成短暂土壤种子库。     

Clusiidae (Diptera) from log emergence traps in the Yambaru, a subtropical forest of Japan

Five species of Clusiidae (Diptera), Craspedochaeta biseta (Hendel), hendeli a plumosa (Sasakawa), Heteromeringia sexramifera Sueyoshi, Phylloclusia yambarensis sp. n., and Sobarocephala uncinata Sueyoshi, were collected from log emergence traps installed in a subtropical forest of Japan from February 2006 to February 2008. Craspedochaeta biseta (Hendel) was newly recorded in Japan. Wood debris was gathered from 1–22 year old secondary stands managed by the improvement cutting of natural forest (ICNF) and unmanaged stands, and categorized by stage of decay and size, and then enveloped in fine net bags (emergence trap). In total, 84 clusiid adults were obtained. Most were reared from wood debris in an advanced stage of decay and from 2 year old or older managed and unmanaged forest stands, although P. yambarensis was reared from wood debris in an early stage of decay and from 1 year old forests after cuttings. Log emergence traps effectively sample clusiids, taking both sexes in approximately equal numbers. Specimens collected by this trap may resolve the difficulty in identifying male and female specimens of several clusiid species that show sexual dimorphism.     

Morphology and life cycle of Marchalina hellenica (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) on pine (Parnis Mt.) and fir (Helmos Mt.) forests of Greece

Marchalina hellenica (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) is a scale insect, endemic in pine (Pinus halepensis) forests of Greece and other Mediterranean countries, which plays a major role in the production of honeydew honey. We investigated the morphological and the biological characteristics of M. hellenica in the pine forests of Mt. Parnis in comparison with those in the high-altitude fir (Abies cephalonica) forest of Mt. Helmos where it has been recently established, after anthropogenic intervention. Morphologically, the final body size of the 1^st instar and the adult stages of M. hellenica in the fir forest were equal to those in the pine forest. Biologically, in the fir forest, the insect exhibited a long 1^st instar’s period, which was the stage of its overwintering. In the pine forest, the 1^st instar period was short and the insect overwinters in the stage of 2^nd instar. The number of eggs per female in the fir forest was quite low (25–145) compared with the number of eggs in the pine forest (200–300). Concerning the qualitative parameters of the resulting honeydew-honey, statistically significant differences were found in Diastase and HMF (p < 0.0001). No difference was found in sucrose, fructose + glucose and water content, neither to electrical conductivity and total acidity. All values were within the EU limits (EU Directive 2001).     

甘南黄河流域4种典型林分土壤C、N、P化学计量特征

土壤碳（C）、氮（N）、磷（P）是参与植物光合作用和影响生态系统初级生产力的主要元素。甘南高原是黄河流域重要的生态屏障,为了解该区不同林分土壤养分状况的差异,选取该区4种典型林分：云杉林、华北落叶松林、巴山冷杉林以及岷江冷杉糙皮桦混交林为研究对象,研究土壤C、N、P化学计量特征。结果表明：（1）岷江冷杉及糙皮桦混交林土壤C、N含量最高,云杉林土壤N、P含量最低。不同林分间P含量差异显著（P<0.05）,不同土层间C、N含量差异均显著（P<0.05）。（2）云杉林土壤C ： N值显著高于其他林分,岷江冷杉及糙皮桦混交林土壤N ： P及C ： P高于其他林分。（3）海拔、土壤pH、容重与土壤含水量是影响土壤养分的重要因素。土壤C含量与N、P含量均显著相关（P<0.05）。总体来说,不同林分土壤化学计量特征具有显著差异,混交林土壤养分状况较纯林好,未来森林管理和植被建设中,可以通过选择合适的树种和提高树种多样性有效改善森林土壤质量。     

Dynamics in Central European near‐natural Abies‐Fagus forests: Does the mosaic‐cycle approach provide an appropriate model?

Question: The mosaic‐cycle concept of forest dynamics dominates in Central Europe. According to this concept intermediate‐scale disturbances only accelerate the forest break‐up under existing cycles of forest development. Is such an approach correct, or should new developmental cycles be elaborated for intermediate‐scale disturbances? Location: Near‐natural Abies alba ‐ Fagus sylvatica forests in the ?wiétokrzyski National Park in Central Poland. In these forests intermediate‐scale disturbances occurred between 1970 and 1990. Methods: Data were collected twice in areas surrounding 212 permanent sample points (in 1994 and 2004). Two increment cores were taken from 259 sample Abies trees. The effect of intermediate‐scale disturbances on radial increment of Abies was assessed. Probabilities of stand transition during a 10‐year period between individual stages and phases of development of the mixed forest were calculated. The development stages and phases were arranged into hypothetical succession series of successive changes. Results: In 1994 70 stands and in 2004, 47 stands representing stages and phases containing the older generation formed by trees > 100–150 years were found. Also, in 1994 142 and in 2004, 165 stands representing stages and phases containing the younger generations only, formed by trees < 100‐150 years, were recorded. Stages and phases containing only younger generations do not occur in the existing forest development cycle which does not consider the influence of intermediate‐scale disturbances separately. Two developmental cycles, which take into account the presence of the older generation and the younger generations only (under conditions of the occurrence of intermediate‐scale disturbances), are proposed. Conclusion: The mosaic‐cycle concept of forest dynamics can be used to analyse the dynamics of Central European near‐natural mixed‐species forests, but new developmental cycles should be elaborated for intermediate‐scale disturbances.     

大兴安岭不同演替阶段天然林物种多度格局模拟

为实现大兴安岭地区落叶松天然林的全周期可持续经营,以新林林业局翠岗林场3块100m×100m不同演替阶段(白桦林、落叶松-白桦混交林和落叶松林)的天然林固定调查样地数据为基础,采用统计模型(对数正态模型)、生态位模型(断棍模型、生态位优先占领模型、Zipf模型、Zipf-Mandelbrot模型)和中性模型(群落零和多项式模型、Volkov模型)对不同演替阶段天然林的乔木层、幼苗层和由乔木层划分的不同林层的物种多度格局进行拟合,并用χ² 检验和Kolmogorov-Smirnov检验选择最佳模型。结果表明:(1) 在大兴安岭地区不同演替阶段的落叶松天然林群落中,Zipf-Mandelbrot模型的拟合效果均最好。(2) 对数正态模型对于稳定的演替阶段白桦林和落叶松林的群落相较于过渡阶段群落落叶松-白桦混交林的物种多度分布的拟合效果更好。(3) 在大兴安岭地区落叶松天然林中,生境过滤主导群落构建,随着群落不断演替生境过滤和中性过程减弱。(4) 天然林群落乔木层的群落构建过程与乔木层内不同生长阶段林层的构建过程不同,生境过滤过程在落叶松林乔木层中逐渐减弱,而在落叶松林不同生长阶段的林层和更新层中增强。     

Similarities between predator mite populations (Acari: Gamasina) from natural forests in the Bucegi Massif,Romania

Ecological research of gamasid mites was carried out in three natural forest ecosystems with Picea abies (1350 m a.s.l.), Abies alba (950–1000 m a.s.l.) and Fagus sylvatica (1200 m a.s.l.) situated in the Bucegi Massif, Southern Carpathians, Romania during 2001–2003. In the studied forest ecosystems, the taxonomic structure of gamasids was represented by 11 families (Epicriidae, Parasitidae, Veigaiidae, Ameroseiidae, Aceosejidae, Rhodacaridae, Macrochelidae, Pachylaelapidae, Laelapidae, Eviphididae and Zerconidae), with 39 genera and 97 species. The maximum number of species was recorded in the ecosystem with Abies alba (80), followed by the ecosystem with Fagus sylvatica (73), while the minimum in the ecosystem with Picea abies (68). 2,016 samples, 97 species with 23,441 individuals were analysed. In order to show similarities between predator mite populations from these areas, the vegetation and some abiotic parameters of the soil (temperature, humidity, pH) were analysed and described. Similarities between gamasid mite populations from the investigated ecosystems were analysed using the Jaccard index (q). The highest similarity index (q = 0.706) was recorded between gamasids identified in Picea abies and Abies alba forests, at soil level, in comparison with those from Abies alba and Fagus sylvatica forests (q = 0.656). Based on the similarity index, it is discussed that the gamasid population structure was influenced by the type of soil, the specific composition of the herbaceous, shrub and tree layers, the microclimatic factors, all characteristic for each studied ecosystem.     

Spatial patterns and interspecific associations among trees at different stand development stages in the natural secondary forests on the Loess Plateau,China

Quercus wutaishansea populations on the Loess Plateau are currently becoming more dominant in natural secondary forests, whereas Pinus tabulaeformis is declining. In the present paper, the diameter class (instead of age) was used to classify the different growth stages as juvenile, subadult, or adult, and the univariate function g(r) was used to analyze the dynamic changes in spatial patterns and interspecific associations in three 1‐ha tree permanent plots on the Loess Plateau, NW China. Our results suggested that the niche breadth changed with the development stage. The diameter distribution curve was consistent with the inverted “J” type, indicating that natural regeneration was common in all three plots. There was a close relationship between the spatial pattern and scale, which showed significant aggregation at small distances, and became more random as distance increased, but in the Pinus + Quercus mixed forests, the whole species were aggregated at distances up to 50 m. The degree of spatial clumping decreased from juvenile to subadult and from subadult to adult. The spatial pattern also differed at different growth stages, likely due to strong intraspecific competition. Associations among different growth stages were positively correlated at small scales. Our study is important to the understanding of the development of the Q. wutaishansea forests; thus, the spatial dynamic change features should be received greater attention when planning forest management and developing restoration strategies on the Loess Plateau.     

Fire regimes and forest changes in mid and upper montane forests of the southern Cascades, Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, U.S.A.

Aim Spatial and temporal variation in fire regime parameters and forest structure were assessed. Location A 2630‐ha area of mid‐ and upper montane forest in Lassen Volcanic National Park (LVNP). Methods Two hypotheses were tested concerned with fire‐vegetation relationships in southern Cascades forests: (1) fire regime parameters (return interval, season of burn, fire size, rotation period) vary by forest dominant, elevation and slope aspect; and (2) fire exclusion since 1905 has caused forest structural and compositional changes in both mid‐ and upper montane forests. The implications of the study for national park management are also discussed. Results Fire regime parameters varied by forest compositional group and elevation in LVNP. Median composite and point fire return intervals were shorter in low elevation Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) (JP) (4–6 years, 16 years) and Jeffrey pine–white fir (Abies concolor) (JP‐WF) (5–10 years, 22 years) and longer in high elevation red fir (Abies magnifica)— western white pine (Pinus monticola) (RF‐WWP) forests (9–27 years, 70 years). Median fire return intervals were also shorter on east‐facing (6–9 years, 16.3 years) and longer on south‐ (11 years, 32.5 years) and west‐facing slopes (22–28 years, 54‐years) in all forests and in each forest composition group. Spatial patterns in fire rotation length were the same as those for fire return intervals. More growing season fires also occurred in JP (33.1%) and JP‐WF (17.5%) than in RF‐WWP (1.1%) forests. A dramatic decline in fire frequency occurred in all forests after 1905. Conclusions Changes in forest structure and composition occurred in both mid‐ and upper montane forests due to twentieth‐century fire exclusion. Forest density increased in JP and JP‐WF forests and white fir increased in JP‐WF forests and is now replacing Jeffrey pine. Forest density only increased in some RF‐WWP stands, but not others. Resource managers restoring fire to these now denser forests need to burn larger areas if fire is going to play its pre‐settlement role in montane forest dynamics.     

Influence of forest structure on the abundance of snowshoe hares in western Wyoming

Snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) are a primary prey species for Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) in western North America. Lynx management plans require knowledge of potential prey distribution and abundance in the western United States. Whether even-aged regenerating forests or multi-storied forests contain more snowshoe hares is currently unknown. During 2006–2008, we estimated snowshoe hare density in 3 classes of 30–70-year-old lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and 4 classes of late seral multi-storied forest with a spruce (Picea engelmannii)-fir (Abies lasiocarpa) component in the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. We recorded physiographic variables and forest structure characteristics to understand how these factors influence abundance of snowshoe hares. In many instances, snowshoe hares were more abundant in late seral multi-storied forests than regenerating even-aged forests. Forest attributes predicting hare abundance were often more prevalent in multi-storied forests. Late seral multi-storied forests with a spruce–fir component and dense horizontal cover, as well as 30–70-year-old lodgepole pine with high stem density, were disproportionately influential in explaining snowshoe hare densities in western Wyoming. In order to promote improved habitat conditions for snowshoe hares in this region, management agencies should consider shifting their focus towards maintaining, enhancing, and promoting multi-storied forests with dense horizontal cover, as well as developing 30–70-year-old lodgepole pine stands with high stem density that structurally mimic multi-storied forests. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: Meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms

Deadwood is an important component of forest ecosystems on which many forest dwelling species depend. Deadwood volume is therefore widely used as an indicator of forest biodiversity, notably throughout Europe. However, using deadwood as an indicator has mostly been based on boreal references, and published references for temperate forests are scarce. As a result, the magnitude of the relationship between deadwood volume and species richness remains unclear for saproxylic species. We used meta-analysis to study the correlation between deadwood volume and the species richness of saproxylic beetles and fungi relative to several predictors at the forest stand level: biome, type of deadwood (log, snag, and stump) and decay class (fresh vs. decayed). We showed that the correlation between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms was significant but moderate (r = 0.31), and that it varied only slightly between logs and snags or between decay stages. However, we found a strong biome effect: deadwood volume and species richness were more correlated in boreal forests than in temperate forests. This could be attributed both to differences in the history of forest management between biomes and to varying landscape patterns. Finally, we conclude that total deadwood volume is probably not a sufficient indicator of saproxylic biodiversity, and those additional variables (notably at the landscape level) such as type of deadwood or decay class should be integrated in deadwood monitoring. In addition, further forest research is needed to better assess the quantitative relationship between deadwood and saproxylic biodiversity, and in order to build indicators adapted to different biome contexts.     

Subalpine forest development following a blowdown in the Mount Zirkel Wilderness,Colorado

Abstract. We documented the occurrence of a 1934 blowdown in a subalpine forest in northwestern Colorado, USA. Prior to the blowdown, the stand was dominated by old‐growth Picea engelmannii ‐ Abies lasiocarpa forests. Although blowdowns are believed to trigger outbreaks of Dendroctonus rufipennis (spruce beetle), we found no detectable increase in beetle caused mortality. Forest recovery was by both release of the previously suppressed regeneration and by new seedling establishment. Both recovery pathways were dominated by Abies. The blowdown thus caused a shift in species dominance from Picea to Abies; 65 yr after the blowdown, the fallen logs and tip up mounds continue to provide favourable habitat for seedling establishment of both species. The present study shows that the legacy of blowdowns can influence forest dynamics for decades following the disturbance event.     

Microsites for seedling establishment of subalpine conifers in a forest with moss-type undergrowth on Mt. Fuji, central Honshu, Japan

We examined microsites for the seedling establishment of Tsuga diversifolia, Abies veitchii and Abies mariesii in a subalpine coniferous forest with moss-type undergrowth dominated by Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi on Mt. Fuji, a less-snowy mountain located on the Pacific Ocean side of the central part of Honshu Island, Japan, and compared these microsites with cases in other regions of Japan with different undergrowth vegetation (herb type, dwarf-bamboo type) under snowier conditions. L-shaped size structures with abundant seedlings and small trees were identified for all three species. Established seedlings of T. diversifolia showed remarkable preference for elevated microsites such as fallen logs and convex ground (i.e. ground raised around trunk bases), while A. veitchii and A. mariesii indicated no significant bias toward such elevated microsites in the large seedling stage. However, the relative frequency of T. diversifolia seedlings established on flat ground reached high values of 54–77%, since the relative occupation area of the flat ground was large (85–89%). Such a large share suggests that flat ground should be regarded as the most important microsite for the seedling establishment of T. diversifolia in forests with moss-type undergrowth. This preference trait for T. diversifolia observed with moss-type undergrowth has not been reported in previous studies examining forests with herb- and dwarf bamboo-type undergrowth, where T. diversifolia seedlings are scarce on the ground and restricted to elevated microsites. We conclude that the major microsite for T. diversifolia seedling establishment changes according to the undergrowth vegetation type: a large ground share for moss-type undergrowth and a small ground share for herb- and dwarf bamboo-type undergrowth.