Eggs fertilizability in domestic hens Gallus gallus domesticus as a function of the yolk surface area

The increase of egg mass and reliable decrease of egg fertilizability were observed when the mass surface area of yolk (egg) increased. The results obtained suggest that, in addition to the number of viable spermatozoa penetrating across the perivitelline membrane within 15-20 min after ovulation, the probability of fertilization depends on the area of egg surface, which approximately corresponds to the area of perivitelline membrane. Apparently, the ratio of receptors' numbers and spermatozoa, which contact with them on the germ disc surface, to their number on the rest part of perivitelline membrane decreases with the increase of yolk size. The decreased egg fertilizability concomitant with the increased area of perivitelline membrane suggests that the egg size is one of the factors of fertility of the female gametes as concerns both variability of the egg composition and age.     

Local circuitry in the IMHV of the domestic chick (Gallus domesticus)

The responses to local stimulation have been recorded from neurons in the intermediate part of the medial hyperstriatum ventrale (IMHV) of the domestic chick, by using an in vitro slice preparation. When the slice is bathed in gassed Krebs' solution, a single stimulus evokes a short-lasting diphasic response. The first phase is negative and lasts some 3 ms, whereas the second, positive phase is often of lower amplitude and usually persists for about 15 ms. The first phase is little altered by perfusion with either Ca2(+)-free Krebs' solution or Krebs' solution containing a high concentration of Mg2+. In contrast, the second phase is abolished by these procedures. The post-synaptic phase is positive when it is recorded anywhere between 0.1-1.25 mm from the stimulated point; however, in the immediate vicinity (0.0-0.1 mm) of the stimulating electrodes, the post-synaptic response is strongly negative. A pair of stimuli has to be separated by at least 10 s to guarantee complete recovery of excitability of the post-synaptic response. The recovery curve for this response shows a refractory period of some 5 ms, a peak of excitability at an interval of about 20 ms, and then a sharp trough of relative inexcitability at about 200 ms. The post-synaptic response is considerably reduced in magnitude and duration by the addition of AP-5 to the perfusion fluid; the remaining post-synaptic response is completely abolished by kynurenic acid. The addition of bicuculline methiodide in concentrations of at least 1 x 10(-6) M increases both the magnitude and duration of the second, positive phase of the response to single stimuli. This extended positive response (which may last from 500-800 ms) is abolished by perfusion with bicuculline dissolved in Ca2(+)-free Krebs' solution. For the entire duration of the extended post-synaptic positive response produced by bicuculline, the irregular discharge of single neurons can be recorded. Like the post-synaptic positive response in Krebs' solution, the much larger response produced by bicuculline shows a very localized negativity beneath the stimulating electrodes and displays an almost identical time-course for the recovery of excitability following a single stimulus. The bicuculline induced positive response is also considerably reduced by the presence of AP-5; the addition of kynurenic acid abolishes the remaining post-synaptic response completely. A post-synaptic response, similar to that produced under bicuculline, can be produced by the addition of a maximally effective dose of d-tubocurarine.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Divergent selection on feather pecking behaviour in laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus)

A selection experiment was initiated in 1996 in which selection for (HP line) and against (LP line) feather pecking was performed. The foundation stock was a White Leghorn layer strain established in 1970 and maintained since then as a random bred control line at the Institute. Six hatches were produced over three generations. At the age of 68 weeks (generation 0, 1996), 35 weeks (generation 1, 1997), 30 weeks (generation 2, 1998), and 27 weeks (generation 3, 1999) female birds were transferred to observation pens and their feather pecking behaviour was recorded. In each generation, 30 females and 8 males were selected from approximately 200 females and 60 males. The selection criterion was breeding value estimated by animal model on the trait 'number of bouts of feather pecking per bird per hour'.Feather pecking behaviour in adult hens was significantly higher in HP than in LP. In generation 2 the following was recorded: 3.10 versus 1.37 bouts per bird per hour (P<0.01), 7.04 versus 3.58 pecks per bird per hour (P<0.05) and the proportion of hens recorded feather pecking in the 180min observation period was 67 versus 56% (P<0.05). In generation 3 the following was recorded: 4.56 versus 0.63 bouts per bird per hour (P<0.001), 13.9 versus 2.51 pecks per bird per hour (P<0.001) and the proportion of hens recorded feather pecking in the 180min observation period was 75 versus 49% (P<0.001).In generation 3, plumage condition was better in LP on neck, breast, back, wings and tail, as well as overall (P<0.001). Body weight did not differ between lines in generation 2, but in generation 3, HP hens were on average heavier than LP hens at the age of 27 weeks (1435g versus 1371g, P<0.001).     

Autosomal inheritance of phosphoglycerate kinase in the domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus)

Electrophoretic variants of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) in the domestic chicken, Gallus domesticus, were found to be inherited in an autosomal manner. No sperm-specific isozyme of PGK exists in the chicken. This is in direct contrast to previous results from therian (placental and marsupial) mammals in which there are two isozymes of PGK, an autosomal form largely or wholly confined to sperm and a sex-linked form found in most other tissues. The implications of these and other results for the question of homology between the avian Z chromosome and the mammalian X chromosome are discussed. It is concluded that there is no evidence of homology between the X chromosome and the Z chromosome.This work was supported by the Australian Research Grants Committee and Macquarie University Research Grants.This work forms part of the Honours degree of B.A. presented to Macquarie University by A. E. C.     

Ovarian steroidogenesis during follicular maturation in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

The steroidogenic potential of various physiological compartments within the ovary of the hen were examined using in vitro systems. Three-hour incubations of individual whole small follicles (less than 1 mm-1 cm) or 100,000 collagenase-dispersed theca cells of the five largest ovarian follicles (F1-F5) were conducted in 1 ml of Medium 199 at 37 degrees C in the presence and absence of luteinizing hormone (LH) (0.39, 0.78, 1.56, 3.13 and 6.25 ng), progesterone (5 ng), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA, 5 ng). Steroid output was measured by radioimmunoassay of incubation media. Progesterone was not produced by small follicles although they are a major source of DHEA and estradiol and a significant source of androstenedione. Output of DHEA, androstenedione and estradiol was highly stimulated by LH. The substrate for androstenedione and estradiol in small follicles is probably DHEA. Output of DHEA and androstenedione in theca cells of F2-F5 was stimulated by LH in a dose-related manner. A dose-response relationship between estradiol output and the concentration of LH in media was not apparent in theca cells from F2-F5. Steroidogenesis in theca tissue of large follicles occurs predominantly via the delta 4 pathway. The ability of these theca cells to metabolize progesterone to androstenedione is lost between 36 and 12 h before ovulation. Their ability to metabolize DHEA to androstenedione is still present 12 h before ovulation. Aromatase activity is significantly reduced between 36 and 12 h before ovulation. These data indicate that both large and small follicles can be stimulated by LH. The small follicles are the major source of estrogen. As the large yolky follicles mature, steroidogenesis shifts from the delta 5 to the delta 4 pathway. By 12 h before ovulation, the F1 follicle has lost the ability to convert progesterone to androstenedione. The inability of the largest ovarian follicle to convert progesterone to androstenedione contributes at least in part to the preovulatory increase in the plasma concentration of progesterone that generates the preovulatory LH surge by positive feedback.     

Genetic-dependent alterations in adrenal stress response and adrenocortical cell function of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

Strain-dependent differences in adrenocortical function were investigated in male White Leghorn domestic fowl. Adrenocortical function of Cornell K strain (K) (genetic control), autosomal dwarf strain (ADW), and sex-linked recessive dwarf strain (SLD) was evaluated in vivo by measuring plasma corticosterone and in vitro by measuring acute (2 hr) corticosterone production by enriched adrenocortical cell populations. Regardless of strain, there was an age-dependent decrease (27-57%) in plasma corticosterone from 1 to 12 weeks of age. However, there was a tendency for plasma corticosterone values of ADW and SLD to be, respectively, greater and less than that of K. In addition, at 12 weeks of age, plasma corticosterone responses of ADW and SLD to transient heat stress (50 degrees C, 30 min) were, respectively, 22.8% greater and 15.9% less than that of K. Strain differences in adrenal weight and relative adrenal weight (mg% body wt) were also apparent. At 12 weeks of age, adrenal weights of ADW and SLD were, respectively, 33 and 42% less than that of K, whereas relative adrenal weights were, respectively, 27.6% greater and 22.4% less than that of K. In addition there were strain-dependent differences in adrenocortical function at the cellular level. Although there were no consistent strain differences in basal and maximal corticosterone production by cells, there were strain differences in cellular sensitivity to ACTH and pregnenolone. On an equal cell concentration basis, the half-maximal steroidogenic concentrations (ED50 values or effective doses for 50% maximal effect) of ACTH for ADW and SLD adrenocortical cells were, respectively, 0.23 and 2.07 times the ED50 value for K cells. In addition, the ED50 value of pregnenolone for ADW cells was 0.46 times that for K and SLD cells. Since ED50 values are a measure of cellular sensitivity (the greater the ED50 value the lesser the cellular sensitivity), the order of sensitivity to ACTH was ADW greater than K greater than SLD and the order of sensitivity to pregnenolone was ADW greater than K = SLD. However, there were no strain differences in ED50 values of 8-bromo-cyclic AMP. These data suggest that strain differences in plasma corticosterone response to stress are, in part, due to differences in relative adrenal weight and differences in adrenocortical cell function.     

Fertilizing competency of multiple ovulated eggs in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

Fertilizing competency of multiple ovulated eggs in the domestic fowl was examined by fertilization in vitro and early development in culture. Normal laying hens (White Leghorn) were treated with 75 IU of PMSG for 7 days followed by injection of anterior pituitary extracts from chickens (CAPE). Ovulation began to occur 7.5 h after injection of CAPE. These hens ovulated 1-7 ova but some premature ovulation of GV stage ova were observed. In vitro fertilization of the multiple ovulated ova was examined by inseminating 10(6)-10(7) sperm onto the germinal disks in m-Ringer's solution. The gamete or zygote nuclei were detected by DNA specific fluorescence using DAPI (4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole) in the histological section prepared from the germinal disk. Process of fertilization was examined in the eggs incubated for 4 h after insemination in DMEM + liquid albumen at 41 degrees C under the atmosphere of 5% CO2 in air. Fertilization rate of the total multiple ovulated eggs was 55% (11/20), in which 90% (9/10) and 10% (1/10) in the eggs recovered 7.5-8.5 h and 9.0-9.5 h after CAPE injection were obtained, respectively. Normal pronuclei were formed in five eggs of those recovered 7.5-8.5 h after CAPE injection. Early development after fertilization in vitro was also examined by incubation for 12 h in DMEM + liquid albumen at 41 degrees C under the atmosphere of 5% CO2 in air. Although development in vitro was delayed compared to that in utero condition, normal development was observed in naturally and multiple ovulated eggs.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Responses of domestic chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) to multimodal aposematic signals

Many aposematic prey combine their visual warning signals withadditional signals. Together, these signals constitute a multimodalor multicomponent warning display. The additional signals arethought to increase the effects of the visual signals on predators.Olfactory signals are much emphasized, but later studies haveshown that also auditory signals like the buzzing of certaininsects might have multimodal effects. The wasp displays typicalvisual aposematic signals, black and yellow stripes, but doesalso emit a characteristic buzzing. We wanted to test if, andin what way, the visual and acoustic display of the wasp hasan aversive function on the predators. We therefore conducteda 12-trial discrimination-learning task on inexperienced chicksto study whether there are innate biases toward these signalsand how they affect the speed of avoidance learning. We alsoperformed three extinction-learning trials to study how memorablethe signals were to the chicks. We show that the visual signalsin the display of the wasp contribute to the protection frompredators but in different ways; the yellow color had an aversiveeffect on inexperienced predators, while the striped patternimproved the aversion learning. The sound did not enhance theinnate aversions but increased the aversion learning of stripesin green prey.     

Effect of hemorrhage on hepatic tissue blood flow in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

1. Thermal Pulse Decay (TPD) methodology was used to monitor hepatic tissue blood flow (hepatic perfusion) in anesthetized birds prior to and during hemorrhagic hypotension. 2. Hemorrhage was accomplished by periodic removal of blood through a carotid cannula. Reducing the estimated blood volume (BV) from 100 to less than 50% decreased hepatic perfusion from 4.36 +/- 0.7 to 1.88 +/- 0.7 ml/min/g. 3. Changes in hepatic perfusion during the experiment were related to mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) by the following linear regression equation: hepatic perfusion = -1.79 +/- 0.0807x (r2 = 0.57).     

Cell membrane amino acid transport processes in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

Intestinal absorption of amino acids in the chicken occurs by way of processes which are concentrative, Na+-dependent and dependent upon metabolic energy in the form of ATP. Intestinal transport is carrier-mediated, subject to exchange transport (trans-membrane effects) and is inhibitable by sugars, reagents which inactivate sulfhydryl groups, potassium ion, and by deoxpyridoxine, an anti-vitamin B6 agent. It is stimulated by phlorizin, a potent inhibitor of sugar transport, and in Na+-leached tissue by modifiers of tissue cyclic AMP levels, e.g. theophylline, histamine, carbachol and secretin. Separate transport sites with broad, overlapping specificities function in the intestinal absorption of the various classes of common amino acids. A simple model for these sites includes one for leucine and other neutral amino acids, one for proline, beta-alanine and related imino and amino acids, one for basic amino acids, and one for acidic amino acids. Absorption of amino acids appears to be widespread in occurrence in the digestive tract of the domestic fowl; transport has been reported to be present in the crop, gizzard, proventriculus, small intestine and in the colon. By the end of the first week of life post-hatch, the caecum loses its ability to transport. Similarly, the yolk sac loses its ability by the second day post-hatch. Intestinal transport was noted before hatch and was found to be maximal immediately post-hatch. A requirement for Ca2+ appears to be lost after the first week of life post-hatch. The cationic amino acids appear to be reabsorbed by a common mechanism in the kidney. Transport rates of leucine measured in the intestine or in the erythrocyte were found to cluster about discrete values when many individual chickens were surveyed; such patterns may be an expression of gene differences between individuals. Two lines of chickens have been developed, one high and the other low uptake, through selective breeding based on the ability of individual birds to absorb leucine in erythrocytes. High leucine absorbing chickens were found to be more effective in absorbing lysine and glycine, were more effectively stimulated by Na+, had greater erythrocyte Na+, K+-ATPase activity, and their erythrocytes contained about 20% less Na+ than low line erythrocytes. The underlying genetic difference between these lines may reside at the level of the Na+, K+-ATPase and (or) with a regulatory gene determining carrier copies. Amino acid transport in erythrocytes was noted to be highest in pre-hatch chicks and to diminish during post-hatch development.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Ground-roosting in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) in The Gambia: the anticipation of night

The ground-roosting behaviour of a semi-feral population of domestic hens with broods of chicks was measured in The Gambia, West Africa. Although neither day length nor time of sunset changed significantly over the duration of the study (January–March 1995), mean daily light intensity showed a significant increase. This resulted in an increasingly rapid decline in light intensity at dusk as the season progressed. Hens went to roost significantly later in the day, and at lower light levels, over the course of the season. The results support a model suggesting that the cue to start roosting is a certain light level, constant over the season, but the `settling period' required means that the hens finally roost at later times and at lower light levels as the season progresses.     

Prostaglandin production by the largest preovulatory follicles in the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus)

An injection of 5 micrograms of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) into hens 8 h prior to oviposition advanced the expected time of oviposition by approximately 1 h. The plasma concentration of progesterone increased approximately 1 h earlier in GnRH-injected hens in comparison to saline-injected hens. The plasma concentration of 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGFM) increased significantly (p less than 0.05) at the time of oviposition in both the GnRH- and saline-injected hens. Significantly (p less than 0.05) greater concentrations of prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2 alpha) were assayed in media containing the largest preovulatory follicles collected at oviposition than in media containing the second and fifth largest preovulatory follicles collected at the same time. No prostaglandin was detected in media containing small, nonhierarchial follicles. The concentration of PGF2 alpha in media containing granulosa cells from the largest preovulatory follicle was significantly greater (p less than 0.05) than in media containing 4 times as many theca cells. Ovine luteinizing hormone (oLH) alone or in combination with arachidonic acid had no effect on PGF2 alpha output from granulosa cells collected 6 h before oviposition, whereas A23187 caused a small stimulation of PGF2 alpha output. However, treating cells first with oLH and then with A23187 stimulated a 15- to 20-fold increase in PGF2 alpha. None of these stimuli enhanced the already high output of PGF2 alpha when added to incubations of granulosa cells collected within 5 min after oviposition. These data suggest that the granulosa cells of the largest preovulatory follicle are the major intraovarian source of prostaglandin and that production of PGF2 alpha is associated with the preovulatory surges of gonadotropins and steroid hormones preceding oviposition.     

Lipoprotein lipase of ovarian follicles in the domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus) (38537).

A lipase, bearing the characteristics of adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase (LPL) has been characterized in avian ovarian granulosa cells. The activity is low in cells from follicles weighing less than 0.5 g; in heavier follicles which have entered the rapid growth phase, significant activity (1 mumole fatty acid/mg protein/hr) could be identified. Granulosa LPL provides follicular tissues with the requisite enzyme system to hydrolyze very low density lipoprotein triglyceride en route to the oocyte.     

Early nuclear events of in vitro fertilization in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus)

In vitro fertilization in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) was investigated by observation of the early nuclear events. Ova retrieved from the fimbria following ovulation were inseminated in vitro with 10(6)-10(7) spermatozoa in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) for 10 min and then further incubated in DMEM + albumen for 1, 2, 3, or 4 hr. These eggs were histologically examined by epifluorescent microscopy after staining with 4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI). Nuclei of spermatozoa at various stages of transformation were observed in the ova incubated for 1-3 hr. Close pairing of two pronuclei, presumed to be male and female juxtaposition, was detected in ova incubated for 4 hr. These data provide direct evidence for the in vitro fertilization of fowl eggs and suggested that the early process of in vitro fertilization is comparable to that of in vivo fertilization.     

Histological study of follicular atresia in the ovary of the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus)

Semi-serial (1 in 20) sections of ovaries were studied and only two types of atresia were identified--non-bursting and bursting. Smaller, non-yolky follicles (less than 1 mm diameter) showed non-bursting atresia. Atresia in follicles greater than 1 mm diameter was invariably of the bursting type which involved the rupture of the follicular wall, and the extrusion of yolk and cellular debris through the rupture site into the stroma. However, this rupture site was small and consequently was not visible in every section but it could always be seen when the follicle was followed in semi-serial sections. The mitotic index of granulosa cells in bursting atretic follicles was much lower than that for normal follicles. The most common criteria for distinguishing non-bursting atretic follicles were the extremely shrunken, irregularly shaped oocytes and the separation of the granulosa from the theca. In bursting atretic follicles, reliable indications were the presence in the ooplasm of some cells or cellular debris, and disorganization of the yolk and granulosa tissue. The presence of pycnotic nuclei in the granulosa cells was not a consistent feature of all atretic follicles of the hen.     

Connections of the IMHV in the domestic chick Gallus domesticus

The responses to single electrical stimuli have been recorded from neurons in the brains of domestic chicks, by using an in vitro preparation consisting of a coronal slice taken from the forebrain. All slices were cut so that they contained the intermediate part of the medial hyperstriatum ventrale (IMHV). When such a slice is bathed in standard Krebs' solution there is no evidence that the excitation produced by a single stimulus can be transmitted more than 1 mm either towards or away from the IMHV. The addition of bicuculline methiodide (more than 3 x 10(-6) M) to Krebs' solution allows the excitation produced by a single stimulus to spread in all directions throughout the dorsal half of a coronal slice. At points remote (more than 1.5 mm) from the stimulated point, the magnitude of the spreading wave of excitation bears an all-or-nothing relation to the strength of stimulus used to excite it. This wave of excitation spreads from the excited point in all directions without attenuation at 0.9 +/- 0.017 (s.d.) m s-1 and consists of a prolonged burst of activity of the invaded neurons. The properties of coronal slices described above are also true of brain slices cut in a parasagittal plane. The spreading response to a single stimulus given in the presence of bicuculline, can be reduced in magnitude by the addition of AP-5 but it still spreads throughout the dorsal part of the slice at the same velocity. The response can be eliminated by the addition of kynurenic acid. The addition of curare to the bathing medium produces similar responses that spread in a similar fashion to those seen under bicuculline. These results suggest that the dorsal part of the forebrain of the domestic chick (in fact, the part derived from the embryological alar plate) contains a network of reciprocally connected local circuits. Transmission throughout the network is normally prevented by active inhibition.