Enclosure environment affects the activity budgets of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Individuals adapt to changes in their environment, such as food availability and temperature, by adjusting the amount of time spent in different behavioral activities. These adjustments in behavior should vary across age-sex class according to specific physiological and social needs. We studied the activity budgets of three social Japanese macaque groups inhabiting either vegetated or nonvegetated enclosures in order to compare the effects of access with vegetation, as both food and substrate on resting, feeding, grooming and moving activities over a 12-month period. Daily access to natural foods for monkeys in the vegetated enclosure seems to be largely responsible for the differences in daily time budgets of these three groups. Resting time in all three groups was longer than the time devoted to other activities. Resting and moving time in the two nonvegetated enclosures was significantly longer than in the vegetated enclosure. In contrast, feeding and grooming time was significantly longer in the vegetated enclosure. Seasonal variation in time spent feeding, resting and grooming was significantly effected by enclosure type. In all three enclosures, immatures, particularly females, spent more time feeding and moving, whereas adults spent more time resting. Significant monthly variation in time spent by age-sex class was noted only for feeding and resting. Interestingly, in the vegetated enclosure, time spent feeding on natural vegetation was equal to the amount of time spent feeding on provisioned food. This suggests that factors other than energetic and nutritional needs may be important determinants of the activity budget of the species. These results have important implications for the enrichment of captive primates and our understanding of the maintenance of activity patterns by primates in the wild.     

Foraging enrichment alleviates oral repetitive behaviors in captive red-tailed black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus banksii)

The relationship between inadequate foraging opportunities and the expression of oral repetitive behaviors has been well documented in many production animal species. However, this relationship has been less-well examined in zoo-housed animals, particularly avian species. The expression of oral repetitive behavior may embody a frustrated foraging response, and may therefore be alleviated with the provision of foraging enrichment. In this study, we examined the effect of different foraging-based enrichment items on a group of captive red-tailed black cockatoos who were previously observed performing oral repetitive behavior. A group of six cockatoos were presented with five foraging enrichment conditions (no enrichment (control), sliced cucumber, fresh grass, baffle cages, and millet discs). Baseline activity budgets were established over a 10-day preintervention period and interventions were then presented systematically over a 25-day experimental period. This study demonstrated that the provision of foraging interventions effectively increased the median percentage of time spent foraging compared to control conditions (range, 5.0–31.7% across interventions vs. 5.0% for control), with two of the interventions; grass and millet discs, significantly decreasing the expression of oral repetitive behaviors (control = 16.6 vs. 8.3% for both grass and millet discs). Finally, a rapid-scoring method utilized by zookeepers during the study proved to be a useful proxy for the amount of time the cockatoos spent interacting with the foraging interventions and overall time spent foraging.     

三种笼养灵长类活动时间分配的比较研究

采用焦点动物法和连续记录法对3种笼养灵长类活动时间分配进行比较研究。结果表明,川金丝猴Rhi-nopithecus roxellanae和熊猴Macaca assamensis用于休息的时间多于猕猴Macaca mulatta,移动时间则相反;川金丝猴和猕猴用于理毛的时间多于熊猴。不同性别年龄组之间的活动时间分配有差异,主要表现在川金丝猴母亲用于理毛的时间明显多于成年儿子,用于玩耍的时间则相反;猕猴成年雄性的移动时间和理毛时间多于成年雌性,玩耍时间则少于成年雌性;熊猴成年雌性的移动时间多于成年雄性,与成年个体相比,幼体花更多的时间用于玩耍,而相应的减少了其休息时间。     

Spontaneous tool use in captive, free-ranging golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia rosalia)

Two types of tool use were observed in eight captive, free-ranging golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia rosalia). All eight individuals used twigs and/or radio collar antennae to pry bark from trees and probe crevices, presumably for invertebrates. Three individuals used tools for grooming. In two animals, antennae were used as grooming tools while the third individual used a stick while grooming. The complexity of the free-ranging environment may have played a role in the expression of tool use behavior in these animals, as tool use has never been observed in captive tamarins living in traditional enclosures or wild tamarins. Social transmission may be one of the mechanisms responsible for the acquisition of tool use — six of the eight tool users resided in two social groups, and the only two individuals that used antennae as grooming tools were a bonded pair. These are the first published observations of tool use by golden lion tamarins or any callitrichid in a non-experimental setting and provide further data supporting the theory of a link between extractive foraging and tool use.     

Activities and feeding behavior of free-ranging pregnant baboons

The activities and feeding behavior of pregnant baboons, Papio cynocephalus,were studied in two free-ranging groups in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Both the environmental conditions and the age of their fetuses influenced females’ activity budgets and feeding behavior. Females fed more and rested less during the dry season than during the wet season, and most females spent progressively more time feeding and less time grooming than expected (based upon the amount of recent rainfall) as their fetuses matured. During the wet season, females also devoted significantly greater proportions of feeding time to consumption of grass blades, leaves, and flowers and significantly smaller proportions of their feeding time to feeding upon seeds, corms, and fruit. As their fetuses became older, the proportion of time spent feeding upon seeds increased, and the proportion of time spent feeding upon grass blades and fruit declined.     

Factors affecting aggression among females in captive groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Captive groups of primates often exhibit higher rates of aggression than wild, free-ranging groups. It is important to determine which factors influence aggression in captivity because aggression, particularly intense aggression, can be harmful to animal health and well-being. In this study, we investigated the effect of ground substrate as well as season, rank, age, and group size on rates of agonistic interactions per female in seven captive groups of rhesus macaques (n = 70 females, 1,723 focal samples) at the California National Primate Research Center. Agonistic interactions were divided into three categories: displacements, mild aggression, and intense aggression. Females living in enclosures with gravel substrate were 1.7 times more likely to be involved in intense aggression (e.g. chases and physical contact) than females living in enclosures with grass (Poisson regression model: P < 0.001). High-ranking females were at least 1.3 times more likely to be involved in mild (e.g. threats and lunges) aggression than lower-ranking females (low rank: P = 0.03; mid rank: P = 0.001). Females of all ranks were 1.5-1.9 times more likely to be involved in both intense and mild aggression during the breeding season than other seasons. Age and group size did not affect rates of mild or intense aggression. These findings indicate that although some aggression appears to be natural and unavoidable, i.e. aggression during the breeding season, the well-being of captive macaques can be improved by developing grass substrate in outdoor enclosures.     

What attracts birds to newly mown pasture? Decoupling the action of mowing from the provision of short swards

Many bird species flock to forage on newly mown grass swards. Several potential benefits are offered by such swards, including increases in prey availability (flush of foliar prey, reduced physical obstruction to surface and soil prey) and a foraging environment with fewer visual obstructions, so allowing predators to be detected more easily. We performed a field experiment using captive Common Starlings Sturnus vulgaris foraging in bottomless enclosures on newly mown swards (within 1 h) and old mown swards (48 h). We performed the experiment during winter months and standardized sward height to exclude other confounding effects in order to determine the temporal benefits of mowing for species foraging on soil invertebrates. We found no differences in the vigilance or time budgets of Starlings foraging on newly or old mown swards. Intake efficiency (prey captured per 100 roots) was greater on newly mown swards, suggesting that Starlings used less energy to obtain their prey on that substrate. It is possible that mowing alters the microclimate of the soil and sward, causing invertebrate availability to decline over time, which causes the lower foraging efficiency. Mowing is a technique often used to manipulate grassland habitats in ecological research; it has recently been advocated as a conservation management tool for wintering bird populations. We suggest that care should be taken when designing such studies to avoid confounding the factors under investigation with temporal changes in prey availability.     

Time resources and laziness in animals

Summary Investigations of time budgets reveal that for many animals a surprising proportion of their active time is spent in inactivity. The question of why these beasts are often idle is investigated by examining their foraging behavior in a model which does not utilize optimization criteria. If an organism's goal is to stay alive, one satisfactory strategy is a thermostat feeding process whereby the animal initiates foraging when it perceives hunger and ceases when it becomes satiated. The simple model is formulated as a Markov chain and analyzed for three cases. Results from each case predict that for many combinations of activity levels and resource spectra, the time spent looking for food is smaller than the time spent not foraging, and laziness may result. Simple decision rules as well as optimization schemes are therefore useful for studying some types of foraging behavior.     

蒙新河狸夏季夜间活动节律和时间分配

2011 年7 ～8 月和2012 年7 ～ 8 月,采用瞬时扫描取样法和焦点动物取样法研究了新疆布尔根河狸保护区蒙新河狸夏季夜间行为节律和时间分配,结果表明:夏季蒙新河狸活动高峰呈晨昏型。觅食和移动行为分别占69.5% 和24.5% ,修饰、警戒和其他行为的时间比例依次是3.4% 、0.4% 、2.2% 。利用Pearson’s correlation 检验发现移动和警戒行为之间存在显著正相关,而觅食行为分别与移动、修饰和其他行为之间呈极显著负相关,与警戒存在显著负相关;Mann-Whitney U 检验表明年龄因素对河狸各种行为的影响不显著(P > 0. 05)。     

兴隆山圈养马麝的行为多样性

综合焦点取样、扫描取样和连续记录等方法,对甘肃兴隆山麝场圈养马麝（Moschus sifanicus）的行为进行了长期的行为取样。应用行为多样性分析方法提取样本行为流的综合信息,采用行为多样性指数和矫正行为多样性指数作为检测指标,分析了圈舍面积和环境丰富性等圈养环境特征对马麝行为多样性的影响,以及性别、年龄、性活跃度和幼年经历等个体特征对其行为多样性格局的效应。结果表明：圈养设施的物理特征可影响马麝的行为多样性,圈养面积较大、环境丰富性较高的圈舍内的马麝行为多样性有相对较高的趋势（但差异不显著,P=0．934）;雌麝的行为多样性明显低于雄麝（P=0．019）;个体年龄（亦直接反映圈养时间）对雌麝行为多样性的降低效应极显著（P：0．001）,但对雄麝没有影响（P=0．548）。马麝的行为多样性没有月间差异（雌：P=0．10;雄：P=0．109）,可能与圈养环境及饲养管理等因子对行为多样性的影响有关。马麝的行为多样性格局同其性活跃度相关。繁殖失败的雌麝的行为多样性有比繁殖成功的雌麝有降低的趋势,但差异不显著（P=0．96）。幼年受到的哺育方式差异对野外捕获和麝场自繁的马麝的行为多样性未产生显著影响（雌：P=0．173;雄：P=0．306）。     

Seasonal Variation in the Activity Patterns and Time Budgets of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis> in the Nonggang Nature Reserve,China

Activity patterns and time budgets are 2 important aspects of animal behavior that researchers use to investigate ecological influences on individual behavior. We collected data on activity patterns and time budgets in 1 group of François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) from August 2003 to July 2004 in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi Province, China, via instantaneous scan sampling method with 15-min intervals. The diurnal activity pattern of François’ langurs showed morning and afternoon feeding peaks, with a midday resting peak. Seasonal change was apparent in the activity pattern: 2 significant feeding peaks occurred in the dry season and only 1 significant feeding peak in the rainy season. The group spent an average of 51.5% of the daytime resting. Feeding and moving accounted on average for 23.1% and 17.3% of the activity budget, respectively. Subjects spent little time on social activities, averaging 2% for grooming and 5.5% for playing. Their time budgets showed significant seasonal variation: they spent a greater proportion of time on feeding and less time on resting and grooming in the dry season than in the rainy season. They also differed among different sex-age classes: immatures spent more time playing, whereas adults devoted more time to resting, feeding, and grooming. Correlations between time budgets and food items or food availability clearly indicated that François’ langurs might adopt an energy-maximizing strategy when preferred foods were scarce in the dry season.     

Activity Budgets Derived From Time-Depth Recorders in a Diving Mammal

Abstract: We describe a method to convert continuously collected time-depth data from archival time-depth recorders (TDRs) into activity budgets for a benthic-foraging marine mammal. We used data from 14 TDRs to estimate activity-specific time budgets in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) residing near Cross Sound, southeast Alaska, USA. From the TDRs we constructed a continuous record of behavior for each individual over 39-46 days during summer of 1999. Behaviors were classified as foraging (diving to the bottom), other diving (traveling, grooming, interacting), and nondiving (assumed resting). The overall average activity budget (proportion of 24-hr/d) was 0.37 foraging (8.9 hr/d), 0.11 in other diving (2.6 hr/d), and 0.52 nondiving time (12.5 hr/d). We detected significant differences in activity budgets among individuals and between groups within our sample. Historically, the sea otter population in our study area had been expanding and sequentially reoccupying vacant habitat since their reintroduction to the area in the 1960s, and our study animals resided in 2 adjacent yet distinct locations. Males (n = 5) and individuals residing in recently occupied habitat (n = 4) spent 0.28-0.30 of their time foraging (6.7-7.2 hr/d), 0.17-0.18 of their time in other diving behaviors (4.1-4.3 hr/d), and 0.53-0.54 of their time resting (12.7-13.0 hr/d). In contrast, females (n = 9) and individuals residing in longer occupied habitat (n = 10) spent 0.40 of their time foraging (9.6 hr/d), 0.08-0.09 of their time in other diving behaviors (1.9-2.2 hr/d), and 0.51-0.52 of their time resting (12.2-12.5 hr/d). Consistent with these differences, sea otters residing in more recently occupied habitat captured more and larger clams (Saxidomus spp., Protothaca spp., Macoma spp., Mya spp., Clinocardium spp.) and other prey, and intertidal clams were more abundant and larger in this area. We found that TDRs provided data useful for measuring activity time budgets and behavior patterns in a diving mammal over long and continuous time periods. Fortuitous contrasts in time budgets between areas where our study animals resided suggest that activity time budgets estimated from TDRs may be a sensitive indicator of population status, particularly in relation to prey availability.     

Summer activity pattern and Field Metabolic Rate of adult male sea otters (Enhydra lutris) in a soft sediment habitat in Alaska

Individual follows and instantaneous sampling were used to examine the behavior of adult male sea otters (Enhydra lutris) in Simpson Bay, Prince William Sound, Alaska, during the summer (May to August) of 2005 and 2006. Six behaviors (foraging, grooming, interacting with other otters, patrolling, resting, and swimming at the surface) were observed during four time periods (dawn, day, dusk, and night) to create 24-h activity budgets. Adult male sea otters were observed during 190 focal follows, representing 98 h of observation. Male otters allocated 27% of their time (over a 24-h period) to resting, 26% to swimming, 19% to grooming, 14% foraging, 9% to patrolling and 5% to interacting with other otters. Field Metabolic Rate (FMR) was estimated by combining the energetic costs for foraging, grooming, resting, and swimming behavior of captive otters from Yeates et al. (2007) with our activity budgets. Our study considered ‘patrolling’ to be energetically similar to ‘swimming’ and therefore the two categories were combined. This combined category accounted for the greatest percentage (43%) of energy expended each day followed by grooming (23%), resting (15%), feeding (13%) and other (5%). The estimated weight specific FMR for all activities was 686.7 kJ day^− 1 kg^− 1 and the total FMR was 19.04 MJ day^− 1. The FMR was 6.6 times the resting metabolic rate and 2.2 times greater than the allometric prediction for terrestrial mammals of similar size but similar to other marine mammals. With a peak summer sea otter density in 5.6 otters km^− 2, the low percentage of time spent foraging (even after correction for possible sampling biases) indicates that Simpson Bay is still below equilibrium density.     

Detecting predators and locating competitors while foraging: an experimental study of a medium-sized herbivore in an African savanna

Vigilance allows individuals to escape from predators, but it also reduces time for other activities which determine fitness, in particular resource acquisition. The principles determining how prey trade time between the detection of predators and food acquisition are not fully understood, particularly in herbivores because of many potential confounding factors (such as group size), and the ability of these animals to be vigilant while handling food. We designed a fertilization experiment to manipulate the quality of resources, and compared awareness (distinguishing apprehensive foraging and vigilance) of wild impalas (Aepyceros melampus) foraging on patches of different grass height and quality in a wilderness area with a full community of predators. While handling food, these animals can allocate time to other functions. The impalas were aware of their environment less often when on good food patches and when the grass was short. The animals spent more time in apprehensive foraging when grass was tall, and no other variable affected apprehensive behavior. The probability of exhibiting a vigilance posture decreased with group size. The interaction between grass height and patch enrichment also affected the time spent in vigilance, suggesting that resource quality was the main driver when visibility is good, and the risk of predation the main driver when the risk is high. We discuss various possible mechanisms underlying the perception of predation risk: foraging strategy, opportunities for scrounging, and inter-individual interference. Overall, this experiment shows that improving patch quality modifies the trade-off between vigilance and foraging in favor of feeding, but vigilance remains ultimately driven by the visibility of predators by foragers within their feeding patches.     

The Effect of Climatic Factors on the Activity Budgets of Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

Climatic conditions can significantly affect the behavior of animals and constrain their activity or geographic distribution. Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) are one of the few primates that live outside the tropics. Here we analyze if and how the activity budgets of Barbary macaques are affected by climatic variables, i.e., air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and snow coverage. We collected scan sampling data on the activity budgets of four groups of macaques living in the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco from June 2008 to January 2011. This habitat is characterized by extreme seasonal changes, from cold and snowy winters to hot and dry summers. The activity budgets of the macaques differed across months but not across the time of day (with the exception of time spent feeding). The monkeys spent significantly more time feeding or foraging when there was no snow than when snow coverage was moderate or major. Daily rainfall was positively related to resting time and negatively to time spent moving or in social behavior. Air temperature was negatively related to time spent feeding or foraging. Finally, time spent on social behavior was significantly lower when relative humidity was high. These data indicate that environmental factors significantly affect the time budgets of endangered Barbary macaques, a species that has been little studied in the wild. Our findings support previous studies on temperate primates in showing that snow coverage can have negative consequences on the feeding ecology and survival of these species.     

Some behavioral characteristics of common voles <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microtus arvalis arvalis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microtus arvalis obscurus</Emphasis> in family groups under experimental conditions

Characteristics of social behavior and time budgets of common voles Microtus arvalis arvalis and M. a. obscurus were studied in 34-m² enclosures. Ten family groups of each chromosomal form (a total of 60 animals) were used. The experiment consisted of four stages, the vole behavior being monitored (I) when they settled in a new territory; (II) when they were in a familiar territory; and upon placing (III) an unfamiliar male or (IV) an unfamiliar female of the same chromosomal race in the enclosure. Observations were performed for a total of 1120 h. The time budgets of the two vicarious forms of voles were compared with respect to the durations of sitting outside the nest boxes, grooming, active movement, and foraging. The social behavior of M. a. arvalis and M. a. obscurus was analyzed with respect to the numbers of intragroup interactions and the ratio between different types of contacts (exploratory, amicable, aggressive, contact evasion, and avoidance).     

Fatty acid supplements improve hair coat condition in rhesus macaques

As captive rhesus macaques often exhibit hair loss, alopecia was quantified and behavior was recorded before, during, and after fatty acid supplementation in six macaques. Fatty acid treatment was associated with a decrease in alopecia and in self‐grooming behavior. Therefore, fatty acids may be a viable treatment for alopecia in some captive primates.     

传统圈养和半自然散放环境亚成年大熊猫的行为差异

2001年7月20日至8月20日,在四川卧龙自然保护区中国保护大熊猫研究中心,采用连续观察法记录和分析了传统圈养和半自然散放环境下亚成年大熊猫(分别为3和9只)的几种行为的持续时间和发生次数。传统圈养环境亚成年大熊猫探究行为的持续时间、标记行为的频次显著多于半自然散放环境下的个体;刻板行为的持续时间有增加的趋势,但无显著差异。刻板行为的持续时间与标记行为的频次和探究行为的持续时间均呈显著正相关。表明圈养环境的改善有助于亚成年大熊猫探究和标记行为的明显减少。     

Investigating Potential Effects of the Contraceptive Implanon on the Behavior of Free-Ranging Adult Female Barbary Macaques

In recent years, the use of hormonal contraception in captive, free-ranging, and wild mammal populations has increased, but the effects on these nonhuman animals' behavior and the associated welfare impacts remain poorly understood. This study of free-ranging adult female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Trentham Monkey Forest compared females implanted with the progestin-only contraceptive Implanon to those not receiving contraception. Females with contraceptive implants had higher rates of self-scratching and spent more time self-grooming (2 behavioral indexes of anxiety) than those without implants. They also directed more aggression at others, spent more time receiving grooming and traveling, and spent less time giving grooming and resting. No significant differences between the 2 groups of females were seen for time spent foraging. These results suggest that Implanon had a number of effects on Barbary macaques, although these need to be considered in light of the significant benefits afforded by the use of this contraceptive. The findings of this study provide important information to those evaluating the relative welfare costs and benefits of alternative methods of population control in this and other species.     

干扰生境下黑叶猴(Trachypithecus francoisi francoisi)日活动时间的分配

1999年至2000年,采用瞬间采样法对贵州省麻阳河国家级自然保护区干扰生境中的野生成年黑叶猴的日活动规律进行了研究。结果表明：干扰生境中野生成年黑叶猴在全年的行为时间分配中表现为休息和摄食所占比例最多,分别为35．41％和31．67％;其次是游走、拥坐和嬉戏,分别为14．44％、9．61％和8．54％;仅将很少时间用于理毛行为,为0．33％。与未干扰生境相比,干扰生境下黑叶猴全年中除用于休息的时间下降外,用于其余活动类型的时间均有所提高。研究还表明野生成年黑叶猴的活动规律在不同季节存在一定差异性。休息和摄食行为在各季节日活动规律中都存在显著高峰期,但高峰期持续时间和强度不同。游走、嬉戏和拥坐行为在各季节的日活动规律所占比例均较低。理毛行为存在季节有或无的现象。