Some remarks on the mathematical bio-sociology of the relativity of injustice

The author's theory of the adoption of certain types of behavior patterns (Rashevsky, N., 1957, “Contributions to the Theory Initiative Behavior”.Bull. Maths. Biophysics,19, 91–119; 1968,Looking at History through Mathematics, Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press) consisting of elementary behaviors for each of which there is an opposite one and the two are mutually exclusive, is applied to describe the changes in the general type of behavior of a society. The elementary acts of which the whole problem consists may be either overt activities or beliefs or opinions. The general behavior patternsadopted by the society are considered as the “proper” or “just” ones. Any deviation from it in either one or more of the component elementary behaviors is considered as “unjust” and is subject to some punitive action. The total number of possible mutually exclusive behavior patterns is very large but finite. Within this very large range of possible patterns, we find that this notion of justice is relative, because changes from any behavior pattern to any other may occur. It is further shown that the amount of punishment for the deviation from the accepted pattern in order to be effective as well as efficient must be applied in different ways to different individuals even for the same transgression.     

Network analysis as a tool to understand social development in spider monkeys

The emerging field of network science has demonstrated that an individual's connectedness within their social network has cascading effects to other dimensions of life. Like humans, spider monkeys live in societies with high fission–fusion dynamics, and are remarkably social. Social network analysis (SNA) is a powerful tool for quantifying connections that may vary as a function of initiating or receiving social behaviors, which has been described as shifting social roles. In primatology, the SNA literature is dominated by work in catarrhines, and has yet to be applied to the study of development in a platyrrhine model. Here, SNA was utilized in combination with R-Index social role calculation to characterize social interaction patterns in juvenile and adult Colombian spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps rufiventris). Connections were examined across five behaviors: embrace, face-embrace, grooming, agonism, and tail-wrapping from 186 hr of observation and four network metrics. Mann–Whitney U tests were utilized to determine differences between adult and juvenile social network patterns for each behavior. Face-embrace emerged as the behavior with different network patterns for adults and juveniles for every network metric. With regard to social role, juveniles were receivers, not initiators, for embrace, face-embrace, and grooming (ps < .05). Network and social role differences are discussed in light of social development and aspects of the different behaviors.     

Imitative behavior in nonuniformly spatially distributed populations

The theory of imitative behavior, developed previously, is applied to the case of two social groups which are separated spatially. If the information of each group as to the behavior of the other is complete, the case reduces to that of a single group. When any information is lacking at all, the two groups are independent. If we have two mutually exclusive behaviorsA andB, all four combinationsAA, AB, BA, andBB are possible. If the mutual information gradually increases from zero, then for a certain value of it, the group which is more informed about the behavior of the other will change to that behavior if it did not already exhibit it. If for constant information the size of the group increases, then above a certain threshold value, the larger group imposes its behavior on the smaller.     

Contributions to the theory of imitative behavior

The imitation effects in a social group depend both on the size of the group and on the distribution of a certain psychobiological quantity ϕ which measures the tendency of an individual towards a given behavior. The distribution function of ϕ determines the ratio μ of the individuals in the society who adopt a given behavior. When the size of the social group is not too large, the actual distribution of ϕ will deviate from the most probable one, and therefore communities of the same size and having the same parameters may have different values of μ. Approximate equations are developed which give the probability of a given μ for a group of a given size. Possible effects of interactions of communities of different sizes are briefly discussed. A generalization of the theory of imitative behavior to any number of mutually exclusive behaviors is given, and its possible sociological implications are discussed.     

A Tradeoff Between Performance and Accuracy in Bird Song Learning

Some of nature’s most complex behaviors, such as human speech and oscine bird song, are acquired through imitative learning. Accurate imitative learning tends to preserve patterns of behavior across generations, thus limiting the scope of cultural evolution. Less well studied are the routes by which cultural novelties arise during development, beyond simple copy error. In this study we assess, in a species of songbird, the relationship in song learning between two potentially conflicting learning goals: accuracy in copying and maximization of vocal performance. In our study species, the swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana), vocal performance can be defined for a given song type and frequency range by the rate of note repetition (‘trill rate’), with faster trills being more difficult to sing. We trained young swamp sparrows with song models with experimentally modified trill rates and characterized both the accuracy and performance levels of copies. Our main finding is that birds elevated the trill rates of low‐performance models, but at the expense of imitative accuracy. By contrast, birds reproduced normal and high‐performance models with typically high accuracy in structure and timing. Developmental mechanisms that enable songbirds to balance imitative accuracy and vocal performance are likely favored by sexual selection and may help explain some current patterns of variation in birdsong. Such mechanisms may also explain how behaviors that are learned by imitation can nevertheless respond to selection for high‐performance levels in their expression.     

河南民权湿地公园青头潜鸭越冬行为模式及性别差异

为了更深入地了解青头潜鸭的越冬行为模式及性别差异,以期为后续青头潜鸭的保护管理提供科学的理论参考,2018年11-12月采用定点观察法、扫描取样法等方法,对河南民权国家湿地公园越冬期青头潜鸭的越冬行为模式及性别差异进行了观察分析。观察期间共记录到青头潜鸭158只,超过全球种群数量1000只的10%。分析结果表明：（1）民权湿地公园,青头潜鸭越冬期行为时间分配以静息、觅食和运动三类行为为主,其次是修整和飞行两类行为;运动行为与觅食、修整、社会等行为之间呈极显著正相关,修整行为与社会行为之间呈极显著正相关,静息行为与修整、运动、社会等行为之间呈极显著负相关,飞行行为与觅食、静息、修整等行为之间呈极显著负相关;（2）静息行为具有全时段高时间分配的特征,不存在峰期和谷期;觅食行为（峰期为10：30-11：30、13：30-14：30,谷期为11：30-12：30、14：30-15：30）和飞行行为（峰期为11：30-12：30、14：30-15：30,谷期为10：30-11：30、13：30-14：30、15：30-16：30）具有明显的错峰式节律;（3）不同性别青头潜鸭越冬行为时间分配存有差异,其中静息、觅食、运动是雄性青头潜鸭主要行为类别（超过70%）,雌性青头潜鸭的主要行为为运动、飞行、觅食（接近70%）;雌雄青头潜鸭在静息、修整、运动和飞行四类行为时间分配方面存在显著性差异,雄性的静息、修整行为的时间分配极显著高于雌性,而运动、飞行行为的时间分配极显著低于雌性;（4）不同性别青头潜鸭越冬行为活动节律方面,除飞行行为外,其余行为均在行为峰期与谷期节律方面存有差异。进一步分析表明：民权湿地公园青头潜鸭越冬行为模式符合行为投资与收益的能量学理论,越冬行为模式在行为时间分配和行为节律方面存在性别差异。     

From fruitless to sex: On the generation and diversification of an innate behavior

Male sexual behavior in Drosophila melanogaster, largely controlled by the fruitless (fru) gene encoding the male specific Fru^M protein, is among the best studied animal behaviors. Although substantial studies suggest that Fru^M specifies a neuronal circuitry governing all aspects of male sexual behaviors, recent findings show that Fru^M is not absolutely necessary for such behaviors. We propose that another regulatory gene doublesex encoding the male-specific Dsx^M protein builds a core neuronal circuitry that possesses the potential for courtship, which could be either induced through adult social experience or innately manifested during development by Fru^M expression in a broader neuronal circuitry. Fru^M expression levels and patterns determine the modes of courtship behavior from innate heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, to learned courtship. We discuss how Fru^M expression is regulated by hormones and social experiences and tunes functional flexibility of the sex circuitry. We propose that regulatory genes hierarchically build the potential for innate and learned aspects of courtship behaviors, and expression changes of these regulatory genes among different individuals and species with different social experiences ultimately lead to behavioral diversification.     

Detailed analysis of paternal knockout Grb10 mice suggests effects on stability of social behavior,rather than social dominance

Imprinted genes are highly expressed in monoaminergic regions of the midbrain and their functions in this area are thought to have an impact on mammalian social behaviors. One such imprinted gene is Grb10, of which the paternal allele is generally recognized as mediating social dominance behavior. However, there has been no detailed study of social dominance in Grb10 ^+/p mice. Moreover, the original study examined tube‐test behavior in isolated mice 10 months of age. Isolation testing favors more territorial and aggressive behaviors, and does not address social dominance strategies employed in group housing contexts. Furthermore, isolation stress impacts midbrain function and dominance related behavior, often through alterations in monoaminergic signaling. Thus, we undertook a systematic study of Grb10 ^+/p social rank and dominance behavior within the cage group, using a number of convergent behavioral tests. We examined both male and female mice to account for sex differences and tested cohorts aged 2, 6 and 10 months to examine any developments related to age. We found group‐housed Grb10 ^+/p mice do not show evidence of enhanced social dominance, but cages containing Grb10 ^+/p and wild‐type mice lacked the normal correlation between three different measures of social rank. Moreover, a separate study indicated isolation stress induced inconsistent changes in tube test behavior. Taken together, these data suggest future research on Grb10 ^+/p mice should focus on the stability of social behaviors, rather than dominance per se.     

Task-specific effects of ostracism on imitative fidelity in early childhood

This study examined task specific effects of third-party ostracism on imitative fidelity in early childhood (N = 96, 3–6-year-olds). Start- and end-states of action sequences were manipulated to examine the effects of priming third-party ostracism versus affiliation on children's imitation of instrumental (i.e., action sequence with a different start- and end-state) versus social convention (i.e., action sequence with an identical start- and end-state) tasks. Children's performance was coded for imitative fidelity and children's explanations for their behavior. As predicted, imitative fidelity was highest and social convention explanations were most common when primed with ostracism in the social convention task. The data are consistent with our proposal that imitation serves an affiliative function in response to the threat of ostracism, a response amplified for social conventions.     

SEXUAL SELECTION,MULTIPLE MALE ORNAMENTS,AND AGE‐ AND CONDITION‐DEPENDENT SIGNALING IN THE COMMON YELLOWTHROAT

In many animals, sexual selection has resulted in complex signaling systems in which males advertise aspects of their phenotypic or genetic quality through elaborate ornamentation and display behaviors. Different ornaments might convey different information or be directed at different receivers, but they might also be redundant signals of quality that function reliably at different times (ages) or in different contexts. We explored sexual selection and age‐ and condition‐dependent signaling in the common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), a sexually dichromatic warbler with two prominent plumage ornaments—a melanin‐based, black facial “mask” and carotenoid‐based, UV‐yellow “bib.” In a three‐year study, variance among males in the number of social (M_w) and extra‐pair (M_e) mates generated strong sexual selection on mask and bib attributes. Some traits (mask size, bib yellow brightness) were correlated with male age and did not experience selection beyond age‐related increases in M_w and M_e. Other traits showed age‐specific (bib size) or age‐reversed (ultraviolet brightness) patterns of selection that paralleled changes in the information‐content of each ornament. The components of male fitness generating selection in young versus old males were distinct, reflecting different sources of variation in male fertilization success. Age‐ and context‐dependent changes in the strength, direction, and target of selection may help explain the maintenance of multiple ornaments in this and other species.     

Social behavior increases in multipod aggregations of southern Alaska resident killer whales (Orcinus orca)

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are highly social and occasionally gather in large aggregations that reach 150 individuals. During 338 encounters with Southern Alaska resident killer whales, we collected 1,352 hr of behavioral data to assess the probability of various behaviors based on season, number of pods present, presence of rarely sighted pods, and number of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes present. A binomial generalized linear model was used to estimate the role of these factors in the probability of four behaviors, foraging, resting, socializing, and traveling. The presence of “rarely sighted” pods (sighted in <5% of encounters) significantly increased probability of social behavior, and significantly decreased probability of resting. The number of pods present also significantly increased probability of increased social behavior. The presence of rarely sighted pods and the number of pods present did not have a significant interaction. Ordinal day and number of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes appears to not have changed the probability of any behavior. Foraging remained the predominant behavior throughout all factors. The concurrent increase in social behavior and decrease in resting behavior with rarely sighted pods present implies an unusually high importance of social behavior in the lives of resident killer whales.     

Multiple Facets of Exploratory Behavior in House Crickets (Acheta domesticus): Split Personalities or Simply Different Behaviors?

Behavioral ecologists are increasingly interested in patterns of repeatable variation in behaviors. The study of this variation, under the label ‘animal personality’, frequently makes assumptions both in regards to what the ecological significance of particular behavioral responses might be and whether different methodologies in fact test the same behavior. Here, using house crickets (Acheta domesticus), we tested whether stereotypical approaches to quantifying repeatable variation in exploratory behavior measured the same behaviors. We found that house cricket exploratory behavior was highly repeatable in two populations (repeatability: 0.37–0.51). However, exploratory behavior across two different testing methods was not strongly correlated (r = ?0.17 to 0.14). This suggests that either different behaviors or distinct components of exploratory behavior were being measured. Our results also support recent criticisms that care needs to be taken in describing personality traits.     

Activation of human arm muscles during flexion/extension and supination/pronation tasks: A theory on muscle coordination

Generally the number of muscles acting across a joint exceeds the number of degrees of freedom available to the joint. This redundancy raises a problem regarding the ratio in which these muscles are activated during a particular motor task. In this paper we present a theory to explain the activation patterns of muscles used during voluntary and reflex induced contractions. The basic assumptions underlying the theory are that 1) coordination of muscles is based on synergistic muscle activities, 2) the synergisms involved satisfy certain transformations of muscle spindle signals to muscle activation signals and 3) muscle spindle output is proportional to the ratio of muscle stretch and muscle length in lengthening muscles, and is zero in shortening muscles. The theory is used to predict the recruitment threshold of motor units in six arm muscles during voluntary isometric contractions. All theoretical predictions are in reasonable agreement with the experimentally observed behavior of a large population of motor units within each muscle. However, within a single muscle sometimes motor-unit populations have been found to have different types of recruitment behavior. This deviating behavior is discussed in the light of the theory presented here.     

Affects of alcoholic consumption on the activity patterns of individual rhesus monkeys and their behavior in a social group

Activity patterns of rhesus monkeys, including social roles, dominance hierarchies, and the like have previously been investigated. The present paper reports an attempt to determine: (1) the social roles, dominance hierarchy and other activities of a group of rhesus monkeysbefore inducing alcohol into their drinking patterns; (2) the behavior of each individual animalbefore alcohol is consumed; (3) the effects of alcohol on individual behaviorafter consumption, and (4) the changes, if any, in the structure and activity of the social groupafter they have consumed the alcoholic beverage. Results indicated that drinking of an alcoholic beverage by rhesus monkeys does affect both individual as well as social behaviors.     

Effects of the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Fluoxetine on Social Behaviors in Male and Female Prairie Voles (Microtus ochrogaster)

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine modifies social behavior in a number of species, including humans. Because the neural substrates for social behavior in prairie voles are sexually dimorphic, we tested whether the effects of fluoxetine on these behaviors differ by sex. Parental and pair-bonded voles were chronically treated with fluoxetine or saline and subsequently tested for parental responsiveness. Fluoxetine-treated animals displayed a longer latency to exhibit parental responsiveness than did saline-treated controls (p< 0.02), but they did not differ in other aspects of parental care. There were no sex differences in the effects of fluoxetine on parental behavior. After completion of the tests for parental behavior, the subjects were tested for aggressive behavior using the resident–intruder paradigm. Fluoxetine-treated males displayed less aggressive behavior than their saline-treated counterparts (p< 0.02). Although we did not find any effects of fluoxetine on aggressive behavior in females, no significant interaction was found between sex and treatment. Fluoxetine did not alter nonsocial behaviors. The findings suggest that serotonin influences social behavior in prairie voles.     

How does social behavior differ among sperm whale clans?

When individuals primarily associate with and learn from those who behave similarly, society and culture become closely tied. Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) exhibit multilevel social structure, the levels of which are differentiated in part by characteristic cultural behaviors. Sperm whales are organized into sympatric clans, with distinctive vocal repertoires that are socially learned. Other behaviors, such as movement patterns and foraging, also differ among clans. Here we ask whether the clan partition also includes divergences in social behavior. Off the Galápagos Islands, members of two clans differed consistently in diving synchrony, heterogeneity, and temporal stability of social relationships. While number of associates (indicated by social unit, group, and cluster sizes) were similar between clans, Regular clan members dived more synchronously and had more homogeneous relationships than the Plus‐One clan members. Plus‐One social units had generally longer associations than those of the Regular clan. Differences in surface‐time coordination and quality of social relationships are likely byproducts of the clan segregation, which could affect alloparental care giving, therefore scaling up to differential calf survival rates between clans. This new dimension of behavioral divergence between sperm whale clans indicates that sympatric, socio‐cultural entities of nonhumans can also display characteristic social behavior.     

Host tissues as microhabitats for Wolbachia and quantitative insights into the bacterial community in terrestrial isopods

Animal–bacterial symbioses are highly dynamic in terms of multipartite interactions, both between the host and its symbionts as well as between the different bacteria constituting the symbiotic community. These interactions will be reflected by the titres of the individual bacterial taxa, for example via host regulation of bacterial loads or competition for resources between symbionts. Moreover, different host tissues represent heterogeneous microhabitats for bacteria, meaning that host‐associated bacteria might establish tissue‐specific bacterial communities. Wolbachia are widespread endosymbiotic bacteria, infecting a large number of arthropods and filarial nematodes. However, relatively little is known regarding direct interactions between Wolbachia and other bacteria. This study represents the first quantitative investigation of tissue‐specific Wolbachia–microbiota interactions in the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare. To this end, we obtained a more complete picture of the Wolbachia distribution patterns across all major host tissues, integrating all three feminizing Wolbachia strains (wVulM, wVulC, wVulP) identified to date in this host. Interestingly, the different Wolbachia strains exhibited strain‐specific tissue distribution patterns, with wVulM reaching lower titres in most tissues. These patterns were consistent across different host genetic backgrounds and might reflect different co‐evolutionary histories between the Wolbachia strains and A. vulgare. Moreover, Wolbachia‐infected females carried higher total bacterial loads in several, but not all, tissues, irrespective of the Wolbachia strain. Taken together, this quantitative approach indicates that Wolbachia is part of a potentially more diverse bacterial community, as exemplified by the presence of highly abundant bacterial taxa in the midgut caeca of several A. vulgare populations.     

Optimization of erythritol and glycerol accumulation in conidia of Beauveria bassiana by solid-state fermentation, using response surface methodology

Entomopathogenic fungi are widely produced for use as mycoinsecticides. Therefore, improvement of the shelf life of fungal propagules under good and adverse conditions should be a pre-requisite of their production. In order to improve conidial physiology as well as mycoinsecticide efficiency, culture conditions may be varied. The Doehlert design was used to generate response surfaces with an estimation of the parameters of the quadratic model allowing the study of three different factors at a different number of levels. This experimental design was applied to optimize water activity (a _w), pH, and fermentation time for Beauveria bassiana conidial production and accumulation of polyols in solid-state fermentation. Thus, it was possible to identify the region in the experimental range in which the optimum values of these parameters were simultaneously achieved. Maximal conidia production was achieved at pH 5–6 and a _w=0.999. Under these conditions, polyol accumulation was 3 mg erythritol/g conidia and 29.6 mg glycerol/g conidia. However, maximal polyol accumulation was achieved at pH 4.5 and a _w 0.950; erythritol production increased 33-fold and glycerol production 4.5-fold. Under these conditions conidia production was 1,000 times lower. The possibilities of increasing the quality of the biocontrol agent without neglecting yield are discussed.     

A contribution to the mathematical biology of social behavior: Riots by oppressed groups

The author’s theory of imitation or mass behavior (N. Rashevsky:Mathematical Biology of Social Behavior, chapter xii, revised edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1959; also Rashevsky:Looking at History through Mathematics, Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Pres, 1968), when society chooses one of two mutually exclusive behaviors, is applied to the interaction of two social groups, an oppressor group and an oppressed one. Using crude approximations, conditions are derived as to when the oppressed group will revolt or riot, when the revolt will be suppressed, and when the oppressors will completely give in and oppression will end. Even in the simple approximation used, the situation depends on 14 parameters showing that a simplistic view on riots such as mere strong punishments is utterly inadequate. It is also shown that situations may exist in which revolution-like changes from one type of behavior of a society to another cannot be prevented by any measures.