The demography of a newly established Osprey Pandion haliaetus population in France

Using long‐term mark–resighting data acquired over 27 years in continental France, we estimated demographic parameters and modelled the dynamics of a newly established population of Ospreys Pandion haliaetus using a life‐history model. We then performed prospective and retrospective analyses to estimate the sensitivity of the population growth rate to demographic parameters, and to quantify their contribution to the observed variation in abundance. The observed population growth rate was estimated at 1.150 (from one to 38 pairs in the period 1985–2011), and the stochastic population growth rate was estimated at 1.156. The number of fledglings per nest made the largest contribution to the variance of the observed population growth rate. Breeding productivity was stable across years. In contrast, the prospective analysis indicated that the sensitivity of the population growth rate was greatest for immigration and adult survival. Our results suggest that the increase of a new and recently established breeding population of Ospreys was mainly driven by local dynamics (high productivity and high proportion of breeding individuals), with no sign of density‐dependence except for juvenile survival. This probably reflects highly favourable conditions for breeding. Our results show that productivity can be a major driver in recovering raptor populations, and conservation work should aim to protect occupied nest‐sites and their surrounding habitat and to maintain highly favourable foraging areas in the vicinity of breeding sites.     

Habitat selection by grassland snakes at northern range limits: Implications for conservation

Animal populations at northern range limits may use habitat differently from those at range cores, requiring distinct conservation plans. Snakes are ectotherms that often have very specific requirements, but few studies have focused on the effect of northern latitudes on habitat selection by grassland snakes. We studied movement and habitat selection of 2 sympatric snake species at their northern range limits on the North American Great Plains: the eastern yellow-bellied racer (Coluber constrictor flaviventris, hereafter racer), a Threatened species in Canada, and the bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer sayi), which is listed as Data Deficient. Both of these species are potentially vulnerable to extinction in Canada because of habitat loss. Snakes from our study populations traveled up to 10-times farther from winter dens and occupied home ranges 3–104 times larger than populations further south. Both snake species moved from winter dens in the slopes of a major river valley to habitat in adjacent lowlands, including riparian zones (racers) and hilly areas with native grass species (bullsnakes). Multivariate modeling revealed that proximity to retreat sites was a significant predictor of snake site use for both species. Considering the need for winter dens and summering areas, our data suggest that snakes in northern latitudes should ideally have much larger protected areas compared to snakes near the core of their range. An alternative strategy is to conserve corridors linking wintering dens and summer habitats. Retreat sites such as burrows and shrubs are critical components of local habitat and should be included in conservation plans. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Demographic variation in the U.K. serotine bat: filling gaps in knowledge for management

Species of conservation concern, or those in conflict with man, are most efficiently managed with an understanding of their population dynamics. European bats exemplify the need for successful and cost‐effective management for both reasons, often simultaneously. Across Europe, bats are protected, and the concept of Favourable Conservation Status (FCS) is used as a key tool for the assessment and licensing of disruptive actions to populations. However, for efficient decision‐making, this assessment requires knowledge on the demographic rates and long‐term dynamics of populations. We used capture–mark–recapture to describe demographic rates for the Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus) at two sites in England and investigate the transition rates between three stages: juveniles, immatures, and breeders. We then use these rates in an individual‐based population dynamics model to investigate the expected trajectories for both populations. Our results demonstrate for the first time the presence and scale of temporal variation in this species' demography. We describe the lengthy prereproductive period (3.5 years) that female Serotines experience. Finally, we show how site‐specific variation in demographic rates can produce divergent population trajectories. Effective management of European bat populations can be achieved through the understanding of life histories, and local demographic rates and population dynamics, in order to anticipate the presence of source and sink sites in the landscape. Using the Serotine bat in England, we show that these can be obtained from rigorous and systematic studies of long‐term demographic datasets.     

Empirical evidence for source–sink populations: a review on occurrence,assessments and implications

Assessing the role of local populations in a landscape context has become increasingly important in the fields of conservation biology and ecology. A growing number of studies attempt to determine the source–sink status of local populations. As the source–sink concept is commonly used for management decisions in nature conservation, accurate assessment approaches are crucial. Based on a systematic literature review of studies published between 2002 and 2013, we evaluated a priori predictions on methodological and biological factors that may influence the occurrence of source or sink populations. The review yielded 90 assessments from 73 publications that included qualitative and quantitative evidence for either source or sink population(s) for one or multiple species. Overall, sink populations tended to occur more often than source populations. Moreover, the occurrence of source or sink populations differed among taxonomic classes. Sinks were more often found than sources in mammals, while there was a non‐significant trend for the opposite to be true for amphibians. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that the occurrence of sources was positively related to connectivity of local populations. Our review furthermore highlights that more than 25 years after Pulliam's widely cited publication on ‘sources, sinks, and population regulation’, in‐depth assessments of the source–sink status of populations based on combined consideration of demographic parameters such as fecundity, survival, emigration and immigration are still scarce. To increase our understanding of source–sink systems from ecological, evolutionary and conservation‐related perspectives, we recommend that forthcoming studies on source–sink dynamics should pay more attention to the study design (i.e. connectivity of study populations) and that the assessment of the source–sink status of local populations is based on λ values calculated from demographic rates.     

Integrated population model reveals that kestrels breeding in nest boxes operate as a source population

The identification of the source–sink status of a population is critical for the establishment of conservation plans and enacting smart management decisions. We developed an integrated population model to formally assess the source status of a kestrel Falco tinnunculus population breeding in nest boxes in Switzerland. We estimated juvenile and adult survival, reproduction and net dispersal (emigration/immigration) by jointly analyzing capture–recapture, dead recovery, breeding monitoring and population survey data. We also investigated the role of nest boxes on kestrel demography and assessed the contributions of vital rates to realized population growth rates. The results indicate that the kestrel population breeding in nest boxes has acted as a source over the 15 years of the study duration. A quantitative approach suggests that a substantial number of individuals have emigrated annually from this population likely affecting the population dynamics outside the management area. Variation in fecundity explained 34% of the temporal variability of the population growth rate. Moreover, a literature review suggests that kestrel pairs produce on average 1.4 chicks more per breeding attempt in nest boxes compared to natural open nests. Together, these findings suggest that fecundity was an important driver for the dynamics of this population and that nest boxes have contributed to its raise. Nest boxes are regularly used as an efficient tool for conservation management. We suggest that such a conservation action can result in the establishment of a source population being beneficial for populations both inside and outside the managed area.     

Effects of management for productivity on adult survival of Snowy Plovers

Understanding the factors contributing to variation in demographic parameters and their influences on population growth is fundamental to effective conservation of small populations, but this information is often not available. Among shorebirds, population growth is generally most sensitive to changes in adult survival so understanding the factors affecting this vital rate is important. We used a long-term mark–resight dataset and Program MARK to examine the effect of management actions, initiated to improve nesting productivity, on adult survival in a threatened population of Snowy Plovers (Charadrius nivosus) in Oregon, USA. Apparent adult survival averaged 0.71 ± 0.01 (SE), but increased from 1990 to 2014. This increase coincided with a decline in use of protective nest exclosures, but initiation of lethal nest predator management. The unexpected apparent benefit to adult survival of removal of nest predators and the negative effect of protective nest exclosures highlight the importance of understanding how management practices at one life cycle stage may have unintended consequences at other life stages. Our 25-year analysis adds to our knowledge of an intensively managed, threatened species at the northern limit of its range, but, more importantly, knowledge of the negative effect of exclosure use and the positive effect of predator management on adult survival can help inform conservation of less well-studied species with similar life histories.     

Winter and summer weather modulate the demography of wild turkeys at the northern edge of the species distribution

Temperate species occupying habitats at the northern limit of their geographical distribution are limited by weather and climatic conditions. Such conditions often directly affect population dynamics, and thus, influence shifts in distribution via changes in demographic parameters. We examined this question by following three distinct populations of wild turkeys inhabiting areas exposed to a gradient of meteorological conditions at the northern limit of the species distribution. Four years of radio-telemetry on 181 birds and monitoring of 95 nests revealed that population demographics of wild turkeys were influenced by snow depth, winter temperature and summer rainfall. During winter, survival of turkeys decreased drastically when snow depth remained >30 cm for >10 days and also decreased as temperatures got colder. In the spring, snow persistence delayed nest initiation, whereas nest survival was negatively affected by rainfall. Our findings show that the effects of critical meteorological factors such as snow and temperature can be compounded when both reach the limit of a species tolerance simultaneously.     

Nest use dynamics of an undisturbed population of bald eagles

Management or conservation targets based on demographic rates should be evaluated within the context of expected population dynamics of the species of interest. Wild populations can experience stable, cyclical, or complex dynamics, therefore undisturbed populations can provide background needed to evaluate programmatic success. Many raptor species have recovered from large declines caused by environmental contaminants, making them strong candidates for ongoing efforts to understand population dynamics and ecosystem processes in response to human‐caused stressors. Dynamic multistate occupancy models are a useful tool for analyzing species dynamics because they leverage the autocorrelation inherent in long‐term monitoring datasets to obtain useful information about the dynamic properties of population or reproductive states. We analyzed a 23‐year bald eagle monitoring dataset in a dynamic multistate occupancy modeling framework to assess long‐term nest occupancy and reproduction in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska. We also used a hierarchical generalized linear model to understand changes in nest productivity in relation to environmental factors. Nests were most likely to remain in the same nesting state between years. Most notably, successful nests were likely to remain in use (either occupied or successful) and had a very low probability of transitioning to an unoccupied state in the following year. There was no apparent trend in the proportion of nests used by eagles through time, and the probability that nests transitioned into or out of the successful state was not influenced by temperature or salmon availability. Productivity was constant over the course of the study, although warm April minimum temperatures were associated with increased chick production. Overall our results demonstrate the expected nesting dynamics of a healthy bald eagle population that is largely free of human disturbance and can be used as a baseline for the expected dynamics for recovering bald eagle populations in the contiguous 48 states.     

Variation in northern bobwhite demography along two temporal scales

Quantification and understanding of demographic variation across intra- and inter-annual temporal scales can benefit from the development of theoretical models of evolution and applied conservation of species. We used long-term survey data for northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) collected at the northern and southern extent of its geographic range to develop matrix population models which would allow investigation of intra- and inter-annual patterns in bobwhite population dynamics. We first evaluated intra-annual patterns in the importance of a seasonal demographic rate to asymptotic population growth rate with prospective perturbation analysis (elasticity analysis). We then conducted retrospective analysis (life table response experiments) of inter-annual patterns in the contribution of observed changes in demography to the observed change in population growth rate. Survival in the earliest age class during the nonbreeding season had the greatest potential influence in both the northern and southern populations. Examination of inter-annual variation in demography indicated that variation in nonbreeding season survival in the earliest age class contributed the most to observed changes in population growth rate in the northern population. In contrast, changes in fertility in the earliest age class in the southern population had the greatest influence on changes in population growth rate. Prospective elasticity analyses highlight the similarities in bobwhite demography throughout different parts of its geographic range, while retrospective life table response experiments revealed important patterns in the temporal differences of bobwhite life history at the northern and southern extent of its geographic range.     

Contemporary breeding biology of critically endangered Regent Honeyeaters: implications for conservation

Identifying factors influencing the demographics of threatened species is essential for conservation, but a lack of comprehensive demographic data often impedes the effective conservation of rare and mobile species. We monitored breeding of critically endangered and semi‐nomadic Regent Honeyeaters Anthochaera phrygia (global population c. 100 pairs) over 3 years throughout their range. Overall nest success probability (0.317) was highly spatially variable and considerably lower than previous estimates for this (and many other honeyeater) species, as was productivity of successful nests (mean 1.58 juveniles fledged). Nest surveillance revealed high predation rates by a range of birds and arboreal mammals as the primary cause of nest failure. An estimated 12% of pairs either failed to establish a territory or their nests did not reach the egg stage. We also found a male bias to the adult sex ratio, with an estimated 1.18 males per female. Juvenile survival for the first 2 weeks after fledging was high (86%). Management interventions that aim to increase nest success in areas of low nest survival must be investigated to address an apparent decline in reproductive output and avoid extinction of the Regent Honeyeater. We show that temporal and spatial variation in the breeding success of rare and highly mobile species can be quantified with robust population monitoring using sampling regimens that account for their life histories. Understanding the causes of spatio‐temporal variation in breeding success can enhance conservation outcomes for such species through spatially and temporally targeted recovery actions.     

Climate change affects populations of northern birds in boreal protected areas

Human land-use effects on species populations are minimized in protected areas and population changes can thus be more directly linked with changes in climate. In this study, bird population changes in 96 protected areas in Finland were compared using quantitative bird census data, between two time slices, 1981-1999 and 2000-2009, with the mean time span being 14 years. Bird species were categorized by distribution pattern and migratory strategy. Our results showed that northern bird species had declined by 21 per cent and southern species increased by 29 per cent in boreal protected areas during the study period, alongside a clear rise (0.7-0.8 °C) in mean temperatures. Distribution pattern was the main factor, with migratory strategy interacting in explaining population changes in boreal birds. Migration strategy interacted with distribution pattern so that, among northern birds, densities of both migratory and resident species declined, whereas among southern birds they both increased. The observed decline of northern species and increase in southern species are in line with the predictions of range shifts of these species groups under a warming climate, and suggest that the population dynamics of birds are already changing in natural boreal habitats in association with changing climate.     

Genetic footprints reveal geographic patterns of expansion in Fennoscandian red foxes

Population expansions of boreal species are among the most substantial ecological consequences of climate change, potentially transforming both structure and processes of northern ecosystems. Despite their importance, little is known about expansion dynamics of boreal species. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are forecasted to become a keystone species in northern Europe, a process stemming from population expansions that began in the 19th century. To identify the relative roles of geographic and demographic factors and the sources of northern European red fox population expansion, we genotyped 21 microsatellite loci in modern and historical (1835–1941) Fennoscandian red foxes. Using Bayesian clustering and Bayesian inference of migration rates, we identified high connectivity and asymmetric migration rates across the region, consistent with source‐sink dynamics, whereby more recently colonized sampling regions received immigrants from multiple sources. There were no clear clines in allele frequency or genetic diversity as would be expected from a unidirectional range expansion from south to north. Instead, migration inferences, demographic models and comparison to historical red fox genotypes suggested that the population expansion of the red fox is a consequence of dispersal from multiple sources, as well as in situ demographic growth. Together, these findings provide a rare glimpse into the anatomy of a boreal range expansion and enable informed predictions about future changes in boreal communities.     

Estimating regional landbird populations from enhanced North American Breeding Bird Surveys

Estimating the size of bird populations is central to effective conservation planning and prudent management. I updated estimated regional bird populations for the East Gulf Coastal Plain of Mississippi using data from 275 North American Breeding Bird Surveys from 2009 to 2013. However, regional bird populations estimated from count surveys of breeding birds may be biased due to lack of empirical knowledge of the distance at which a species is effectively detected and the probability of detecting a species if it is present. I used data recorded within two distance classes (0–50 m and >50–400 m) and three 1‐min time intervals on 130 Breeding Bird Surveys to estimate detection probability and effective detection distance for 77 species. Incorporating these empirical estimates of detection probability and detection distance resulted in estimated regional populations for these species that were markedly greater than regional populations estimated without species‐specific estimates of detection parameters. Using the same Breeding Bird Survey data, I also estimated probability of site occupancy for 66 species and extrapolated this to the proportion of area occupied in the East Gulf Coastal Plain of Mississippi. I combined the area occupied with the reported range of breeding territory size for 54 species to obtain independent estimates of regional bird populations. Although the true population of these species is unknown, estimated populations that incorporated empirical estimates of detection probability and detection distance were more likely to be within the range of independently estimated, occupancy‐based, regional population estimates than were population estimates that lacked empirical detection and distance information.     

Comparing ape densities and habitats in northern Congo: surveys of sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in the Odzala and Ndoki regions

The conservation status of western lowland gorillas and central chimpanzees in western equatorial Africa remains largely speculative because many remote areas have never been surveyed and the impact of emergent diseases in the region has not been well documented. In this study, we compared ape densities and habitats in the Lokoué study area in Odzala National Park and the Goualougo Triangle in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in northern Republic of Congo. Both of these sites have long been considered strongholds for the conservation of chimpanzees and gorillas, but supposedly differ in vegetative composition and relative ape abundance. We compared habitats between these sites using conventional ground surveys and classified Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite images. We present density estimates via both standing-crop and marked-nest methods for the first time for sympatric apes of the Congo Basin. The marked-nest method was effective in depicting chimpanzee densities, but underestimated gorilla densities at both sites. Marked-nest surveys also revealed a dramatic decline in the ape population of Lokoué which coincided with a local Ebola epidemic. Normal baseline fluctuations in ape nest encounter rates during the repeated passages of marked-nest surveys were clearly distinguishable from a 80% decline in ape nest encounter rates at Lokoué. Our results showed that ape densities, habitat composition, and population dynamics differed between these populations in northern Congo. We emphasize the importance of intensifying monitoring efforts and further refinement of ape survey methods, as our results indicated that even the largest remaining ape populations in intact and protected forests are susceptible to sudden and dramatic declines.     

Conservation biology of Malagasy strepsirhines: a phylogenetic approach

The phylogenetic diversity of extant lemurs represents one of the most important but least studied aspects of the conservation biology of primates. The phylogenetic diversity of a species is inversely proportional to the relative number and closeness of its phylogenetic relatives. Phylogenetic diversity can then be used to determine conservation priorities for specific biogeographic regions. Although Malagasy strepsirhines represent the highest phylogenetic diversity among primates at the global level, there are few phylogenetic data on species-specific and regional conservation plans for lemurs in Madagascar. Therefore, in this paper the following questions are addressed for extant lemurs: 1) how does the measure of taxonomic uniqueness used by Mittermeier et al. (1992 Lemurs of Madagascar; Gland, Switzerland: IUCN) equate with an index of phylogenetic diversity, 2) what are the regional conservation priorities based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in extant lemurs, and 3) what conservation recommendations can be made based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in lemurs? Taxonomic endemicity standardized weight (TESW) indices of phylogenetic diversity were used to determine the evolutionary component of biodiversity and to prioritize regions for conserving lemur taxa. TESW refers to the standardization of phylogenetic diversity indices for widespread taxa and endemicity of species. The phylogenetic data came from recent genetic studies of Malagasy strepsirhines at the species level. Lemur species were assigned as being either present or absent in six biogeographic regions. TESW indices were combined with data on lemur complementarity and protected areas to assign conservation priorities at the regional level. Although there were no overall differences between taxonomic ranks and phylogenetic rankings, there were significant differences for the top-ranked taxa. The phylogenetic component of lemur diversity is greatest for Daubentonia madagascariensis, Allocebus trichotis, Lepilemur septentrionalis, Indri indri, and Mirza coquereli. Regional conservation priorities are highest for lemurs that range into northeast humid forests and western dry forests. Expansion of existing protected areas in these regions may provide the most rapid method for preserving lemurs. In the long term, new protected areas must be created because there are lemur species that: 1) are not found in existing protected areas, 2) exist only in one or two protected areas, and 3) are still being discovered outside the current network of protected areas. Data on the population dynamics and feeding ecology of phylogenetically important species are needed to ensure that protected areas adequately conserve lemur populations in Madagascar.     

Demographic responses to climate change in a threatened Arctic species

The Arctic is undergoing rapid and accelerating change in response to global warming, altering biodiversity patterns, and ecosystem function across the region. For Arctic endemic species, our understanding of the consequences of such change remains limited. Spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri), a large Arctic sea duck, use remote regions in the Bering Sea, Arctic Russia, and Alaska throughout the annual cycle making it difficult to conduct comprehensive surveys or demographic studies. Listed as Threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, understanding the species response to climate change is critical for effective conservation policy and planning. Here, we developed an integrated population model to describe spectacled eider population dynamics using capture–mark–recapture, breeding population survey, nest survey, and environmental data collected between 1992 and 2014. Our intent was to estimate abundance, population growth, and demographic rates, and quantify how changes in the environment influenced population dynamics. Abundance of spectacled eiders breeding in western Alaska has increased since listing in 1993 and responded more strongly to annual variation in first‐year survival than adult survival or productivity. We found both adult survival and nest success were highest in years following intermediate sea ice conditions during the wintering period, and both demographic rates declined when sea ice conditions were above or below average. In recent years, sea ice extent has reached new record lows and has remained below average throughout the winter for multiple years in a row. Sea ice persistence is expected to further decline in the Bering Sea. Our results indicate spectacled eiders may be vulnerable to climate change and the increasingly variable sea ice conditions throughout their wintering range with potentially deleterious effects on population dynamics. Importantly, we identified that different demographic rates responded similarly to changes in sea ice conditions, emphasizing the need for integrated analyses to understand population dynamics.     

Estimation of dieback process caused by herbivory in an endangered root-sprouting shrub species,Paliurus ramosissimus (Lour.) Poir., using a shoot-dynamics matrix model

Mortality, a critical parameter for population dynamics, is difficult to measure in long-lived trees or clonal herbaceous species because of the extremely low frequency of deaths. A model based on shoot recruitment would be helpful to estimate the population fate of species without a sufficient number of observed deaths. Existing matrix models are applicable to the dynamics of physiologically independent shoots, but not to physiologically dependent ones. We developed a shoot-dynamics model for plants with physiologically-dependent shoots, and used the model to estimate the effects of herbivory and conservation measures on the dynamics of a long-lived, shoot-sprouting shrub species, Paliurus ramosissimus (Rhamnaceae). Two populations of the endangered shrub have been severely damaged by herbivory by sika deer. The damage was mainly to new sprouting shoots. No deaths of individual plants were observed during an 8-year survey, and we could not estimate mortality. Thus, prediction of population dynamics based on births and deaths of individuals was impossible. Because P. ramosissimus is a shoot-sprouting species, we instead estimated the decline of individuals using a shoot-dynamics model. Using this model, we estimated the time to an 80 % decrease in shoot number per individual in the two populations at 37.8 and 37.2 years. These lengths suggest an immediate need for conservation measures to prevent herbivory even though no death of any individual was observed in the field survey. The estimated recovery times from the herbivory damage were 28.7 and 29.2 years if herbivory of new shoots is completely prevented by conservation measure.     

Protected species outside the protected areas: People's attitude,threats and conservation of the Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens) in the Far-western Lowlands of Nepal

Although there is high potential for conservation of species outside protected areas, it is often neglected in researches and conservation programs. Protected species are legally protected even outside the protected areas and can be flagships for conservation in these areas, but their conservation aspects in these areas are poorly studied. We studied conservation aspects of a poorly known species, Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens), which is protected in most of its range countries, outside the protected areas in the Far-western lowlands of Nepal. We studied people's relationship, attitudes and threats to the species through questionnaire survey with adults and children in Parasan Village Development Committee of Kanchanpur District. We found that most of the adults were unaware about the protected status and importance of the species, and both adults as well as children killed the species. The study revealed that most of the killing occurred in agricultural land and children were more responsible for the killing than the adults. We found that monsoon vacation in schools increased the threat to the species. Our study revealed that fear from the species was the main reason and use of the species as food, medicine and hide were other reasons for killing of the species by adults. Low awareness was the major reason behind the killing by children as most of the killing was not related to any good reasons. We estimated that 87 individuals of the species could have been killed in the area in that year. Based on available evidences, we recommend further studies to predict the vulnerability of the species. Our study suggests that raising awareness among locals about its legal status and importance is the simple and efficient measure for the conservation of the species as well as for conserving other protected species outside the protected areas.     

Phylogeography and genetic differentiation along the distributional range of the orchid Epidendrum fulgens: a Neotropical coastal species not restricted to glacial refugia

Aim Phylogeographical studies in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (BAF) have mostly included species associated with forest habitats, whereas taxa associated with grassland and sand‐dune plant communities have so far been largely overlooked. This study examines the phylogeography of the orchid Epidendrum fulgens, which occurs on coastal sand dunes and granitic outcrops, in order to identify major genetic divergences or disjunctions across the range of the species and to investigate the genetic signatures of past range contractions and expansions. Location Southern and south‐eastern seashore vegetation along the BAF biome, and granitic and arenitic outcrops that occur in the subtropical grassland plant communities located south of the BAF. Methods Nine nuclear and four plastid microsatellite loci were used to genotype 424 individuals from 16 populations across the distributional range of E. fulgens. For both sets of markers, we estimated genetic diversity and population differentiation, testing for a north–south gradient of genetic diversity. The plastid haplotype network and a Bayesian assignment analysis of nuclear markers were used to infer population structure. Past demographic changes were investigated using a coalescence approach. Results A deep disjunction was found between northern populations within the BAF and southern populations outside the BAF that occur on granitic and arenitic outcrops. Recent demographic reductions were detected in northern populations on coastal sands. Such demographic changes were not expected for those populations, as previous studies with forest species had found evidence of population expansion in the same areas. Higher genetic diversity was found in southern populations on granite, in contrast to patterns observed in previous studies of forest species. Main conclusions The results are consistent with the long‐term persistence of E. fulgens. Bottlenecks were detected in populations from areas where population expansion events have been detected in other plant (and animal) species, suggesting that forest expansion after the Last Glacial Maximum played a role in the population fragmentation and decrease in genetic diversity in E. fulgens. A substantial genetic division in E. fulgens corresponds to the ‘Portal de Torres’, a region that demarcates the northern limits of subtropical grassland plant communities and the southern limits of the BAF.     

Lifespan Analyses of Forest Raptor Nests: Patterns of Creation,Persistence and Reuse

Structural elements for breeding such as nests are key resources for the conservation of bird populations. This is especially true when structural elements require a specific and restricted habitat, or if the construction of nests is costly in time and energy. The availability of nesting-platforms is influenced by nest creation and persistence. In a Mediterranean forest in southeastern Spain, nesting-platforms are the only structural element for three forest-dwelling raptor species: booted eagle Aquila pennata, common buzzard Buteo buteo and northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis. From 1998 to 2013, we tracked the fate of 157 nesting-platforms built and reused by these species with the aim of determining the rates of creation and destruction of nesting-platforms, estimating nest persistence by applying two survival analyses, describing the pattern of nest reuse and testing the effects of nest use on breeding success. Nest creation and destruction rates were low (0.14 and 0.05, respectively). Using Kaplan Meier survival estimates and Cox proportional-hazards regression models we found that median nest longevity was 12 years and that this was not significantly affected by nest characteristics, nest-tree dimensions, nest-builder species, or frequency of use of the platform. We also estimated a transition matrix, considering the different stages of nest occupation (vacant or occupied by one of the focal species), to obtain the fundamental matrix and the average life expectancies of nests, which varied from 17.9 to 19.7 years. Eighty six percent of nests were used in at least one breeding attempt, 67.5% were reused and 17.8% were successively occupied by at least two of the study species. The frequency of nest use had no significant effects on the breeding success of any species. We conclude that nesting-platforms constitute an important resource for forest raptors and that their longevity is sufficiently high to allow their reuse in multiple breeding attempts.