Genera of Scrophulariaceae in the páramos of the Venezuelan Andes

A report on the family Scrophulariaceae in the páramos of the Venezuelan Andes is made, which includes 13 genera. A key to the genera is provided.     

Multiple roles of heparin in the aggregation of p25α

The 219-residue protein p25α stimulates the fibrillation of α-synuclein (αSN) in vitro and colocalizes with it in several α-synucleinopathies. Although p25α does not fibrillate by itself under native conditions in vitro, αSN-free p25α aggregates have also been observed in vivo in, for example, multiple system atrophy. To investigate which environmental conditions might trigger this aggregation, we investigated the effect of polyanionic biomolecules on p25α aggregation. Heparin, polyglutamate, arachidonic acid micelles, and RNA all induce p25α aggregation. More detailed studies using heparin as template for aggregation reveal that a minimum of 10-14 heparin monosaccharide units per heparin polymer are required. Bona fide fibrils are only formed at intermediate heparin concentrations, possibly because an excess of heparin binding sites blocks the inter-p25α contacts required for amyloid formation. Other polyanions also show an optimum for amyloid formation. Aggregation involves only modest structural changes according to both spectroscopic and proteolytic experiments. The aggregates do not seed aggregation of heparin-free p25α, suggesting that heparin is required in stoichiometric amounts to form organized structures. We are able to reproduce these observations in a model involving two levels of binding of p25α to heparin. We conclude that the modest structural changes that p25α undergoes can promote weak intermolecular contacts and that polyanions such as heparin play a central role in stabilizing these aggregates but in multiple ways, leading to different types of aggregates. This highlights the role of non-protein components in promoting protein aggregation in vivo.     

Silencing CD36 gene expression results in the inhibition of latent-TGF-β1 activation and suppression of silica-induced lung fibrosis in the rat

Background

The biologically active form of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) plays a key role in the development of lung fibrosis. CD36 is involved in the transformation of latent TGF-β1 (L-TGF-β1) to active TGF-β1. To clarify the role of CD36 in the development of silica-induced lung fibrosis, a rat silicosis model was used to observe both the inhibition of L-TGF-β1 activation and the antifibrotic effect obtained by lentiviral vector silencing of CD36 expression.

Methods

The rat silicosis model was induced by intratracheal injection of 10 mg silica per rat and CD36 expression was silenced by administration of a lentiviral vector (Lv-shCD36). The inhibition of L-TGF-β1 activation was examined using a CCL-64 mink lung epithelial growth inhibition assay, while determination of hydroxyproline content along with pathological and immunohistochemical examinations were used for observation of the inhibition of silica-induced lung fibrosis.

Results

The lentiviral vector (Lv-shCD36) silenced expression of CD36 in alveolar macrophages (AMs) obtained from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and the activation of L-TGF-β1 in the BALF was inhibited by Lv-shCD36. The hydroxyproline content of silica+Lv-shCD36 treated groups was significantly lower than in other experimental groups. The degree of fibrosis in the silica+Lv-shCD36-treated groups was less than observed in other experimental groups. The expression of collagen I and III in the silica+Lv-shCD36-treated group was significantly lower than in the other experimental groups.

Conclusion

These results indicate that silencing expression of CD36 can result in the inhibition of L-TGF-β1 activation in a rat silicosis model, thus further preventing the development of silica-induced lung fibrosis.     

Synergistic interactions between β-lapachone and fluconazole in the inhibition of CaCdr2p and CaMdr1p in Candida albicans

BackgroundMortality rate of invasive Candida infections is raising mainly amongst immunocompromised patients. These infections are hard-to-treat mainly due to the increasing incidence of resistance. The overexpression of ATP-binding cassette and major facilitator superfamily transporters is the main responsible for the failure of antifungal therapies. In a Saccharomyces cerevisiae model, β-lapachone inhibited Pdr5p, a transporter homologous to those found in Candida albicans.AimsTo determine whether β-lapachone reverses the resistance phenotype mediated by efflux transporters in C. albicans clinical isolates.MethodsThe antifungal activity of β-lapachone combined with fluconazole was measured by agarose chemosensitization and microdilution assays. CaCdr2p and CaMdr1p activities were evaluated through fluorescent dyes accumulation. ATPase activity was assessed using transporter-enriched plasma membranes.Resultsβ-lapachone reverted antifungal resistance of S. cerevisiae and C. albicans strains overexpressing CaCdr2p and CaMdr1p transporters by inhibiting these proteins activities. CaCdr2p ATPase activity was not impaired by the compound.Conclusionsβ-lapachone is a promising drug candidate to be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of candidiasis caused by fluconazole-resistant C. albicans strains.     

Soluble CD36- a marker of the (pathophysiological) role of CD36 in the metabolic syndrome?

CD36 is a class B scavenger receptor observed in many cell types and tissues throughout the body. Recent literature has implicated CD36 in the pathogenesis of metabolic dysregulation such as found in obesity, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis. Genetic variation at the CD36 loci have been associated with obesity and lipid components of the metabolic syndrome, with risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Recently, non-cell bound CD36 was identified in human plasma and was termed soluble CD36 (sCD36). In this review we will describe the functions of CD36 in tissues and address the role of sCD36 in the context of the metabolic syndrome. We will also highlight recent findings from human genetic studies looking at the CD36 locus in relation to metabolic profile in the general population. Finally, we present a model in which insulin resistance, oxLDL, low-grade inflammation and liver steatosis may contribute to elevated levels of sCD36.     

Assignment of the gene encoding the catalytic subunit Cβ of CAMP-dependent protein kinase to the p36 band on chromosome

Summary A cDNA for the human catalytic subunit (C) of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) has been cloned from a testis cDNA library. In the present study, we have determined the chromosomal localization of this gene using a cDNA for C as a probe. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA from human/mouse cell hybrids revealed that the presence or absence of a 20-kbXbaI fragment, which hybridized with the C probe, was concordant with the presence of human chromosome 1.In situ hybridization to metaphase chromosome confirmed the somatic cell hybrid data and regionally mapped the C gene of PKA to the p36 band on chromosome 1.     

Characterization and Evaluation of Key Sites in the Peptide Inhibitor of TAB1/p38α Interaction

A combination of computation techniques and peptide mutants have been used to determine the binding site and amino acid residues on the inhibitor peptide that are critical for binding to Mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (p38α). In our previous research work, the functional peptide, named as PT5, target to p38α, was obtained based on the theoretical complex structure of p38α and [transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)-activated protein kinase 1 (TAK1)-binding protein 1] (TAB1). Based on the computer-guided ab initio modeling method, the inhibitor peptide PT5 and its mutants were modeled. Furthermore, the 3-D complex structures of PT5 or its mutants and p38α were constructed using molecular docking and dynamics simulation methods. The key residues in the peptide PT5 involved in binding interaction to p38α were predicted. According to the 3-D theoretical complex structure PT5/ p38α, the interaction binding mode between PT5 and p38α was analyzed using distance geometry technology. Mutants of the peptide PT5 was used to evaluate the bio-function when the critical residues were mutated. The mutant experimental results identified the key residues in PT5, i.e. Thr¹¹ and Asp¹² and determined the core sequence of PT5 binding to p38α. Based on the results, optimized peptides compounds could be developed for treating myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in clinical.     

IL-36α Exerts Pro-Inflammatory Effects in the Lungs of Mice

Interleukin (IL-) 36 cytokines (previously designated as novel IL-1 family member cytokines; IL-1F5– IL-1F10) constitute a novel cluster of cytokines structurally and functionally similar to members of the IL-1 cytokine cluster. The effects of IL-36 cytokines in inflammatory lung disorders remains poorly understood. The current study sought to investigate the effects of IL-36α (IL-1F6) and test the hypothesis that IL-36α acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine in the lung in vivo. Intratracheal instillation of recombinant mouse IL-36α induced neutrophil influx in the lungs of wild-type C57BL/6 mice and IL-1αβ^−/− mice in vivo. IL-36α induced neutrophil influx was also associated with increased mRNA expression of neutrophil-specific chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL2 in the lungs of C57BL/6 and IL-1αβ^−/− mice in vivo. In addition, intratracheal instillation of IL-36α enhanced mRNA expression of its receptor IL-36R in the lungs of C57BL/6 as well as IL-1αβ^−/− mice in vivo. Furthermore, in vitro incubation of CD11c⁺ cells with IL-36α resulted in the generation of neutrophil-specific chemokines CXCL1, CXCL2 as well as TNFα. IL-36α increased the expression of the co-stimulatory molecule CD40 and enhanced the ability of CD11c⁺ cells to induce CD4⁺ T cell proliferation in vitro. Furthermore, stimulation with IL-36α activated NF-κB in a mouse macrophage cell line. These results demonstrate that IL-36α acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine in the lung without the contribution of IL-1α and IL-1β. The current study describes the pro-inflammatory effects of IL-36α in the lung, demonstrates the functional redundancy of IL-36α with other agonist cytokines in the IL-1 and IL-36 cytokine cluster, and suggests that therapeutic targeting of IL-36 cytokines could be beneficial in inflammatory lung diseases.     

Localization of the human Rh blood group gene structure to chromosome region 1p34.3–1p36.1 by in situ hybridization

Summary A cDNA clone, RhIXb (1384 bp), encoding the entire protein sequence of a human blood group Rh polypeptide has been used to map the Rh locus, by in situ hybridization, to the region p34.3–p36.1 of chromosome 1. Two other unrelated cDNA clones, pUCA2 (750bp) and pUCIII (1600 bp), isolated during the cloning procedure of the Rh cDNA were investigated simultaneously, and assigned to chromosome 3p21.1–3p22 (clone pUCA2) and to chromosome 22q12.1–22q13.1 (clone pUCIII).     

Expression of Estrogen Receptor α 36 (ESR36) in the Hamster Ovary throughout the Estrous Cycle: Effects of Gonadotropins

Estradiol-17β (E) plays an important role in ovarian follicular development. Evidence indicates that some of the effect of E is mediated by the transmembrane estrogen receptor. In this study, we examined the spatio-temporal expression of recently discovered ERα36 (ESR36), a splice variant of Esr1 and a receptor for non-genomic E signaling, in the hamster ovary during the estrous cycle and the role of gonadotropins and ovarian steroid hormones in ESR36 expression. ESR36 expression was high on estrus (D1∶0900 h) and declined precipitously by proestrus (D4∶0900 h) and remained low up to D4∶1600 h. Immunofluorescence findings corroborated immunoblot findings and revealed that ESR36 was expressed only in the cell membrane of both follicular and non-follicular cells, except the oocytes. Ovarian ESR36 was capable of binding to the E-affinity matrix, and have different molecular weight than that of the ESR1 or GPER. Hypophysectomy (Hx) resulted in a marked decline in ESR36 protein levels. FSH and LH, alone or combined, markedly upregulated ESR36 protein in Hx hamsters to the levels observed in D1 hamsters, but neither E nor P had any effect. Inhibition of the gonadotropin surge by phenobarbital treatment on D4∶1100 h attenuated ESR36 expression in D1∶0900 h ovaries, but the decline was restored by either FSH or LH replacement on D4 afternoon. This is the first report to show that ESR36, which is distinct from ESR1 or GPER is expressed in the plasma membrane of ovarian follicular and non-follicular cells, binds to E and its expression is regulated directly by the gonadotropins. In light of our previous findings, the results suggest that ovarian cells contain at least two distinct membrane estrogen receptors, such as GPER and ESR36, and strongly suggest for a non-genomic action of E regulating ovarian follicular functions.     

Influence of the photoperiod on TGF-β1 and p15 expression in hamster Leydig cells

Adult hamsters exposed to short photoperiods show a marked atrophy of their internal reproductive organs, including a reduction in size, though not number of Leydig cells. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is involved in the regulation of growth and proliferation of different cell types. The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of photoperiod on the protein and gene expression of TGF-β1 and its receptors as well as gene expression of p15. The effect of TGF-β1 on the expression of p15 in purified Leydig cells from regressed and non-regressed hamster testes was also tested. Protein and gene expression of TGF-β1 was detected in both regressed and non-regressed testes. In contrast to the activin receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK-1), the TGF-β1, the activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK-5) and the co-receptor endoglin all showed a greater basal expression in regressed than non-regressed hamster testes. Melatonin induced the TGF-β1 mRNA expression in purified Leydig cells from non-regressed testes. The p15 mRNA level was greater in regressed than non-regressed testes. A high dose of TGF-β1 during a short incubation period increased the p15 mRNA level in Leydig cells from non-regressed testes. ALK-5 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 might have played a role in this process. In regressed hamster testes, the p15 mRNA level increased due to a low dose of TGF-β1 after short incubation periods and to a high dose after longer incubation periods; in both instances, ALK-5, ERK 1/2 and p38 were involved. Collectively, these results suggest that the alterations in p15 expression, mediated by MAPK, are involved in the shift between the active and inactive states in hamster Leydig cells.     

Variation of the immunolabelling of the α1-isotubulin in the mitotic spindle ofPhysarum polycephalum

Summary Immunofluorescent labelling ofPhysarum microtubules with a new antibody specific for the ₁-isotubulin has been compared with the labelling with an antibody specific for -isotubulins and an antibody with recognizes tubulin chains terminated by an aromatic amino-acid. In agreement with the known presence of only one -isotype in amoebae and several -isotypes in plasmodia, the immunofluorescence of the mitotic spindle was qualitatively identical, but lower in plasmodia than in amoebae. In all cases except one, there were no relative variations of immuno-fluorescence staining with the three antibodies, from metaphase to telophase, in spindles sampled. In plasmodia grown at optimal temperature, both during normal or perturbed mitosis, the immunostaining of the ₁isotype decreased sharply after metaphase, while the staining obtained with the two other antibodies did not vary significantly. The immunologic determination of the relative amount of the ₁-isotubulin in the tubulin pool and in isolated mitotic microtubules could not account for this observation.     

Involvement of kinase PKC-zeta in the p62/p62P392L-driven activation of NF-κB in human osteoclasts

Mutations of the gene encoding sequestosome1 (SQSTM1/p62), clustering in or near the UBA domain, have been described in Paget's disease of bone (PDB); among these the P392L substitution is the most prevalent. Protein p62 mediates several cell functions, including the control of NF-κB signaling, and autophagy. This scaffolding protein interacts with atypical PKCζ in the RANKL-induced signaling complex. We have previously shown that osteoclasts (OCs) overexpressing the p62^P392L variant were in a constitutively activated state, presenting activated kinase p-PKCζ/λ and activated NF-κB prior to RANKL stimulation. In the present study, we investigated the relationships between PKCζ and NF-κB activation in human OCs transfected with p62 variants. We showed that PKCζ and p-PKCζ/λ co-localize with p62, and that PKCζ is involved in the RANKL-induced NF-κB activation and in the RANKL-independent activation of NF-κB observed in p62^P392L-transfected cells. We also observed a basal and RANKL-induced increase in IκBα levels in the presence of the p62^P392L mutation that contrasted with the NF-κB activation. In this study we propose that PKCζ plays a role in the activation of NF-κB by acting as a p65 (RelA) kinase at Ser⁵³⁶, independently of IκBα; this alternative pathway could be used preferentially in the presence of the p62^P392L mutation, which may hinder the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway. Overall, our results highlight the importance of p62-associated PKCζ in the overactive state of pagetic OCs and in the activation of NF-κB, particularly in the presence of the p62^P392L mutation.     

Crucial role of the Rcl1p–Bms1p interaction for yeast pre-ribosomal RNA processing

The essential Rcl1p and Bms1p proteins form a complex required for 40S ribosomal subunit maturation. Bms1p is a GTPase and Rcl1p has been proposed to catalyse the endonucleolytic cleavage at site A₂ separating the pre-40S and pre-60S maturation pathways. We determined the 2.0 Å crystal structure of Bms1p associated with Rcl1p. We demonstrate that Rcl1p nuclear import depends on Bms1p and that the two proteins are loaded into pre-ribosomes at a similar stage of the maturation pathway and remain present within pre-ribosomes after cleavage at A₂. Importantly, GTP binding to Bms1p is not required for the import in the nucleus nor for the incorporation of Rcl1p into pre-ribosomes, but is essential for early pre-rRNA processing. We propose that GTP binding to Bms1p and/or GTP hydrolysis may induce conformational rearrangements within the Bms1p-Rcl1p complex allowing the interaction of Rcl1p with its RNA substrate.