Location of Heterodera glycines-induced Syncytia in Soybean as Affected by Soil Water Regimes

Locations of syncytia induced by the soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines race 3, were compared in roots of ''Essex'', a susceptible soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cultivar, at three soil water regimes. The plants were grown in wet (-5 to -20 kPa), moderately wet (-30 to -50 kPa), and moderately dry (-60 to -80kPa) autoclaved Captina silt loam soil (Typic Fragiudult). In the moderately dry soil, syncytia were found only in the stele, but in moderately wet and wet soils, syncytia occurred primarily in the cortex and occasionally in the stele. The location of syncytia in the cortical tissue of roots growing in wet and moderately wet soils may account for the tolerance of susceptible soybean cultivars grown under well-irrigated conditions where there is less interference with water transport through roots. Cell-wall perforations and dense cytoplasm were characteristic of syncytial cells observed in root tissues of all treatments.     

Localisation of translocated 14C in roots and root exudates of field-grown maize

The roots of a mature, field-grown maize plant are dimorphic: the primary root and those from the oldest nodes are bare with a heavily lignified cortex arid sloughed epidermis; those from younger nodes, except for a bare elongation zone, have an intact epidermis surrounded by a persistent soil sheath. Sheathed roots consistently have more layers of cortical cells, but the ratio of volumes of cortex to stele (ca 4) and the cross-sectional area of phloem (ca³× 10⁻² mm²) are similar in each type. Assimilated carbon (from ¹⁴ C applied to a small area of one leaf) was translocated to all roots and actively metabolized in cortex and stele of both types. After 1 to 2 days the proportion of ¹⁴C exuded from a given length of mature root into its soil sheath, or into the adjacent unattached soil in the case of bare roots, was the same (5%) in both root types when compared with the ethanol-soluble ¹⁴C in the tissues of this length. Up to 75% of the ethanol-soluble label in the roots was in a cationic fraction (amino acids and unidentified compounds), ca 1% was in an anionic fraction and the remainder was in a neutral fraction (sugars). Approximately equal amounts of soluble ¹⁴C were found in the stele, cortex and laterals.     

Ecophysiology of Wetland Plant Roots: A Modelling Comparison of Aeration in Relation to Species Distribution

This study examined the potential for inter-specific differencesin root aeration to determine wetland plant distribution innature. We compared aeration in species that differ in the typeof sediment and depth of water they colonize. Differences inroot anatomy, structure and physiology were applied to aerationmodels that predicted the maximum possible aerobic lengths anddevelopment of anoxic zones in primary adventitious roots. Differencesin anatomy and metabolism that provided higher axial fluxesof oxygen allowed deeper root growth in species that favourmore reducing sediments and deeper water. Modelling identifiedfactors that affected growth in anoxic soils through their effectson aeration. These included lateral root formation, which occurredat the expense of extension of the primary root because of theadditional respiratory demand they imposed, reducing oxygenfluxes to the tip and stele, and the development of stelar anoxia.However, changes in sediment oxygen demand had little detectableeffect on aeration in the primary roots due to their low wallpermeability and high surface impedance, but appeared to reduceinternal oxygen availability by accelerating loss from laterals.The development of pressurized convective gas flow in shootsand rhizomes was also found to be important in assisting rootaeration, as it maintained higher basal oxygen concentrationsat the rhizome–root junctions in species growing intodeep water. Copyright 2000 Annals of Botany Company Aeration, diffusion, ecophysiology, flooding, model, oxygen, respiration, root, wetland     

The effect of soil freezing on the survial of winter-sown white lupins (Lupinus albus L.)

Specially constructed soil-freezing growth boxes were used to study the effects of the intensity and duration of soil freezing on root injury and the survival of white lupin seedlings of different ages under controlled conditions. The extent of root damage depended on both the intensity of soil freezing and the stage of seedling development (measured as the extent of lignification of the central stele of the primary root). Seedlings whose secondary root development was well advanced, and in which the endodermis was completely lignified, survived intense soil freezing intact. Young seedlings with weakly lignified roots were damaged by moderate soil freezing (> 5 days at ?1°C) and killed by more intense freezing (5 days at ?2°C). The extent of root development and ligmfkation was correlated with the number of leaf primordia produced at the shoot apex so that the susceptibility to soil freezing damage could be accurately predicted by a simple physiological/leaf production model.     

Metal storage in reeds from an acid mine drainage contaminated field

Phragmites australis has been used to treat acid mine drainage (AMD)-contaminated soil. However, the mechanism about metal translocation in reeds was not widely reported. This study investigated metal (Fe, Al, and Mn) storage location in reeds grown in five different sampling sites of an AMD field. As expected, the more metals in soil, the more metals entered the belowground organs of plants. Reeds grown in soils with the highest levels of metals accumulated 0.16 ± 0.04 mg/g Mn, 16.29 ± 4.15 mg/g Fe, and 1.31 ± 0.22 mg/g Al in roots. Most of the iron was sequestered in the roots, while Al was transferred to the shoots. Histological staining found that most of the iron was sequestered in the exodermis, while Al extended the endodermis of roots. Al even entered the stele of roots grown in soil with higher Al levels. The epidermis, cortex, and central cylinder of rhizomes were the main tissues for Fe and Al storage. The more metals in rhizomes, the stronger intensity of the staining was observed around the vascular systems of rhizomes. No structural difference was observed among reeds collected from different sites. Further studies may be needed to enhance the transfer of metals in reeds and increase the phytoremediation efficiency.     

A comparison of fine root distribution and water consumption of mature Caragana korshinkii Kom grown in two soils in a semiarid region, China

Water is a key limiting factor for vegetation restoration in the semi-arid areas of China. Caragana korshinkii Kom is a shrub that is widely planted in this region to control soil erosion and land desertification. The objective of this study was to investigate the fine root distribution of mature C. korshinkii and its water consumption, when grown in either silt loam or sandy soils, in order to understand differences between the water cycles of two such soils found in the transition zone between fertile loess hills and desert of the Northern Loess Plateau. Fine root distributions were measured using the trench-profile method. Soil water dynamics were monitored with a neutron probe during two growing seasons. The results showed that fine root area density (FRAD) declined with increasing soil depth in both soils, with 70.7% and 96.6% of the total fine roots being concentrated in the upper 1-m layer of the silt loam and sandy soils, respectively. Water consumption by C. korshinkii in the silt loam was close to that in the sandy soil. Most water consumption in both soil types was from the upper 1-m layer. Little variation in plant available water (PAW) occurred in the 3–6 m soil layer during the whole study period. However, in this layer, the PAW was significantly lower in the silt loam soil than in the sandy soil. Total actual evapotranspiration (ET_a) was slightly higher from the sandy soil plots than from those of the silt loam soil during both growing seasons. Our study indicated that mature C. korshinkii effectively uses about the same amount of water from either the silt loam or sandy soils, but that more soil water at depth was extracted from silt loam soil than from sandy soil.     

THE SPREAD OF DISEASES CAUSED BY SPECIES OF VERTICILLIUM

An investigation has been made of the spread of Verticillium disease of tomato and antirrhinum by root contact between diseased and healthy plants, and by the growth of the fungi through the soil. V. alboatrum and V. Dahliae spread rapidly by root contact, while V. tricorpus, V. nigrescens and V. nubilum showed no appreciable spread. Where the tomato and antirrhinum hosts wilted and died the causal organism was invariably isolated from the soil near the roots of the dead plants, but where the inoculated host harboured species without showing disease symptoms, as in the case of V. tricorpus and V. nubilum in antirrhinum, the parasite was never obtained from the soil. Moreover, these species in antirrhinum, and V. nigrescens and V. nubilum in tomato would appear to be mild pathogens since when they were already well established V. alboatrum was later actually found to enter and parasitize the respective hosts and bring about its own typical disease symptoms.
Spread through the soil in the absence of hosts was tested by the insertion into it of infected wheat grains followed by later attempts to isolate the fungi at varying distances from the point of infection. V. alboatrum, V. Dahliae and V. tricorpus showed little or no growth through the soil, whereas V. nigrescens and V. nubilum spread saprophytically to some extent, though never attaining sufficient concentration to cause appreciable infection of later planted tomatoes.
The conclusion is reached that spread of disease caused by species of Verticillium takes place mainly by root contact, with a rapidity relatively proportional to that of the death of the host. This finding, together with the lack of spread from antirrhinum plants infected with the non-lethal V. tricorpus and V. nubilum , suggests that the parasites remain in the vascular tracts until the death of the hosts.     

Studies on fungi in the root region

Summary Fungal isolations were made from roots ofPhaseolus vulgaris after washing in sterile water, at monthly intervals throughout the life of the plant, and from other roots after dissection and after surface sterilization at certain plant ages only. A table is provided showing the relative importance of the most common species isolated in each of four clearly distinct microhabitats — the root surface, the cortex, the outer stele and the inner stele.Fusarium oxysporum andCylindrocarpon radicicola were the most frequently isolated fungi from the roots.Fusarium oxysporum was most abundant on young roots and seemed to be associated, particularly, with the root surface and cortical tissues.Cylindrocarpon radicicola, although common on young roots, was more abundant on older roots and was an important initial colonist of the stelar tissues. Sterile mycelia were isolated mainly from older roots and seemed to be responsible, withC. radicicola, for the initial colonization of the stele. Microscopic examination of roots showed the cortical tissues to be increasingly penetrated by fungal hyphae with plant age but extensive fungal penetration of the endodermis and stelar tissues did not occur until the plants were at least five months old.     

Effects of Temperature on the Development of Metaxylem in Primary Wheat Roots and Its Hydraulic Consequence

The effects of different temperatures on the development ofmetaxylem were studied in the primary seminal root of winterwheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. Xylem development wasstudied microscopically at different distances behind the rootapex after safranin staining to reveal lignification. Diameter of the central late metaxylem (LMX) and its proportionto the stele cross-sectional area increased in the acropetaldirection. Diameter of the LMX and stele decreased with an increasein growing temperature. Numbers of early metaxylem (EMX) wereseven, seven and six at 10, 20 and 30 C, respectively. EMXwas lignified much more rapidly than the LMX along the seminalroot axes. Lignification of xylem elements commenced furthertowards the root apex at the higher temperatures. The LMX vesselsof the roots grown at the higher temperature had thicker secondarywalls. The relative conductivity of seminal roots, calculated fromPoiseuille's equation, decreased as growing temperature increased.In a drought-prone environment where wheat plants rely heavilyon stored soil water, a lowered axial conductivity in the rootswould be advantageous. The plants would tend to conserve waterduring vegetative growth for use during the critical periodsof flowering and grain-filling. Breeders selecting wheat plants for altered LMX diameters shouldcontrol temperatures during primary root development, sectionthe roots at the same distance from the tip and be aware thatcross walls may exist in the LMX for up to 30 cm from the tip. Wheat, Triticum aestivum L., roots, xylem development, hydraulic conductivity, temperature     

5种虾脊兰菌根显微结构观察

采用石蜡切片法观察5种虾脊兰菌根的显微结构、菌根真菌的侵入途径与分布特征,为更好地保护和开发利用虾脊兰属植物资源提供理论依据.结果表明:(1)5种虾脊兰菌根的显微结构由根被、皮层和中柱组成,根被细胞3～6层,皮层由9～13层薄壁细胞组成,韧皮部与木质部8～12束,呈辐射状相间排列,中柱中央为薄壁细胞组成的髓.(2)菌丝...     

Rhizome development ofPhragmites australis in a reed community

Variations in the height, shoot density, biomasses of above- and below-ground parts and rhizome distributions ofPhragmites australis were investigated along a line-transect in a reed community at Yufutsu Mire, Hokkaido. Relationships of performance of the reed plants to soil conditions and species compositions were also examined. Three types of rhizome development were recognized in reed plants; (1) the central part of the reed community, characterized by well developed rhizomes and dense aerial shoots, (2) the intermediate part, characterized by development of rhizomes along both the peat and surface layers and very dense aerial shoots, and (3) the marginal part, characterized by development of rhizomes only along the peat layer and sparse aerial shoots. Observation showed that rhizomes in the surface layer actively produced aerial shoots, whereas rhizomes in the peat layer contributed to the spreading of their distribution range. With the growth of rhizomes, organic debris originating from dead rhizomes and roots accumulated in the mineral soil to promote organic soil formation. In dense parts of the reed stand, species composition was poor because of the shading and litter accumulation by reed plants. The effects of microtopography and water level on the establishment of reed seedlings were also considered.     

AN ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE SALT SECRETION OF FOUR HALOPHYTES

Plants of Spartina anglica, Limonium vulgare, Armeria maritima and Glaux maritima were collected in the field and grown on different concentrations of NaCl, KCl and CaCl₂. Salt secretion, ion content, water content and transpiration rates were determined. The highest sodium secretion was found in Spartina anglica , a species from the most saline habitat; and a somewhat lower secretion rate in Limonium vulgare. The lowest rates were found in Glaux maritima and Armeria maritima. The sodium secretion efficiency, i.e. the ability to maintain an unchanged internal sodium content, was highest in Spartina anglica. Spartina anglica is the most successful in the removal of excessively absorbed salt, since it secretes 60% of the absorbed sodium. The values for Limonium vulgare, Glaux maritima and Armeria maritima were 33, 20 and 4% respectively. The species studied differ in the preferential sequence of ion secretion as well as in secretion rate and efficiency. This preferential sequence of ion secretion seems to be similar in members of the same taxonomic group (Plumbaginaceae). The comparability of the secretion parameters is discussed with regard to morphological differences between the species.     

Root structure and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of the palm Serenoa repens under field conditions

Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small is a palm native to the southeastern USA. It is a common understory plant in pine communities on both acid sands and alkaline limestone. Roots have only primary growth and range in thickness from 8.0 mm (first order roots from the stem) to 0.8–2.9 mm (ultimate roots of third to fifth order). The thickest roots occur at soil depths >20 cm; fine roots (<1.2 mm) occur at all depths (1–60 cm). Some second and third order roots are negatively geotropic and grow up to the mineral soil surface. The epidermis of all roots has a thick, eventually lignified outer wall. Except for the thinnest, all roots have a single-layered, thick-walled exodermis, which is first suberized and later lignified. Root hairs are never present. A hypodermis composed of several layers of lignified cells (up to 8-cells-thick) is next to the exodermis and forms the outer cortex. Radial series of thin walled and slightly lignified cells sporadically occur in the outer cortex of the thinnest roots, but there are no passage cells in the exodermis, which is continuous. The remaining inner cortex is composed of unlignified parenchyma with air canals and a completely lignosuberized endodermis in old roots. Passage cells were seen the the endodermis of the some of the thinnest roots. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi occur in the outer one-third of the cortical parenchyma adjacent to the hypodermis. Fungal coils, arbuscules and vesicles are found most frequently in the thinnest roots, but also occur sporadically in all root orders. Cells a few mm from the apical meristem are sometimes colonized. At sites of appressoria, coils of AM hyphae occur within an epidermal cell and exodermal and hypodermal cells beneath. Intercellular hyphae with intracellular branch arbuscules (Arum-type) are common in the inner cortex. There is evidence of a dieback of the highest order roots during the winter dry season. Profiles of soil and roots have the highest density of AM spores in the surface 10 cm layer. Total AM spore density ranged from 130 to 1100 spores per 50 g soil in different samples. Glomus spp. dominated followed by Gigaspora spp. The findings are related to a more general understanding of growth and AM colonization in long-lived roots of tropical woody monocotyledons. Palm roots, in particular, are slow growing and are protected by massive hypodermal layers. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Siltation and hydrologic regime determine species composition in herbaceous floodplain communities

Interest in the restoration of riparian habitat is increasing. However, little is known about factors responsible for riparian communities, especially grasslands. In order to construct plant communities for a restoration project in the floodplain of a large river in the Midwestern United States, we sampled four floodplains with various disturbance regimes located in Illinois and Missouri. They were chosen to be representative of different plant communities of floodplains, with a focus on herbaceous communities. The areas included backwater lakes, alluvial fans, groundwater seep marshes, oxbow marshes, seasonally inundated grassland, and non-inundated grassland. Vegetation, soils and groundwater or standing water depth were measured at various intervals along transects. Communities were produced using TWINSPAN and tested for differences in environmental factors. The soil morphology, taxonomic classification, and fertility parameters were similar among sites. Environmental factors influencing community composition were the presence of permanent water and silt deposition. We conclude that water depth determines species composition in permanently wet areas. Silt deposition determines composition in seasonally inundated grassland. Where silt deposition is high enough to inhibit seedling emergence, dominance is attained by plants able to reproduce vegetatively by rhizomes. Such a reproductive process leads to nearly monotypic stands produced by large clones. Results are discussed in relation to models of riparian processes and succession.     

Population-specific Traits and their Implication for the Evolution of a Drought-adapted Ecotype in Armeria maritima

Traits contributing to drought resistance of Armeria maritima were investigated by comparing six populations of this species from sandy grasslands, heavy metal mines and salt marsh sites. The sandy soil ecotype that is influenced by periodic drought was found to allocate constitutively a higher proportion of biomass to the root system, especially to the fine roots, than the other two ecotypes. The selective advantage of this lower shoot-root ratio is presumably the delayed onset of the critical water saturation deficit because of the ability to take up additional water from deeper soil layers. Under water stress, all populations of A. maritima showed a decrease in the shoot-root ratio. Additionally, under moderate long-term water stress a decrease in (= more negative) osmotic potential was found in leaves of plants from all populations. Lowest osmotic potentials were shown by the salt marsh ecotype and the highest by one of the heavy metal populations. Osmotic adjustment was achieved passively by a reduction in osmotic volume. Accumulation of osmotically active compounds was seen only under severe water stress, when the considerable betaine contents found in all populations of A. maritima even under control conditions were further increased by severe drought. The evolution of traits related to drought adaptation in the sandy soil ecotype of A. maritima is discussed.     

菰适应湿地环境的解剖和屏障结构特征研究

菰(Zizania latifolia)是一种多年生挺水植物,为了探讨该植物根、茎和叶的解剖结构、组织化学及其质外体屏障的通透性生理。该文利用光学显微镜和荧光显微镜,对菰的根、茎、叶进行了解剖学和组织化学研究。结果表明:(1)菰不定根解剖结构由外而内分别为表皮、外皮层、单层细胞的厚壁机械组织层、皮层、内皮层和维管柱;茎结构由外而内分别为角质层、表皮、周缘厚壁机械组织层、皮层、具维管束的厚壁组织层和髓腔。叶鞘具有表皮和具维管束皮层,叶片具有表皮,叶肉和维管束。(2)不定根具有位于内侧的内皮层及其邻近栓质化细胞和外侧的外皮层组成的屏障结构;茎具内侧厚壁机械组织层,外侧的角质层和周缘厚壁机械组织层组成的屏障结构,屏障结构的细胞壁具凯氏带、木栓质和木质素沉积的组织化学特点,叶表面具有角质层。(3)菰通气组织包括根中通气组织,茎、叶皮层的通气组织和髓腔。(4)菰的屏障结构和解剖结构是其适应湿地环境的重要特征,但其茎周缘厚壁层和厚壁组织层较薄。由此推测,菰适应湿地环境,但在旱生环境中分布有一定的局限性。     

沙坡头地区沙冬青AM真菌的时空分布

2007年5月、8月和10月分别从宁夏沙坡头地区豆科植物沙冬青(Ammopiptanthus mongolicus)根围分0-10cm,10-20cm,20-30cm,30-40cm和40-50cm5个土层采集土壤样品。研究了AM真菌时空分布及与土壤因子的相关性,在分离的3属12种AM真菌中,球囊霉属(Glomus)6种,无梗囊霉属(Acaulospora)4种,盾巨孢囊霉属(Scutellospora)2种,3属12种AM真菌在3个时期均有分布。AM真菌定殖率与孢子密度有明显的时空分布规律,并与土壤因子关系密切。孢子密度和泡囊定殖率在8月份最高,丛枝、菌丝和总定殖率10月份最高。土壤采样深度对孢子密度和定殖率有显著影响,AM真菌最高定殖率和最大孢子密度均出现在0-30cm浅土层。孢子密度与土壤有机质、碱解N极显著正相关,与pH显著正相关;菌丝、总定殖率与pH、碱解N和速效P极显著正相关。在评估荒漠生态系统和沙冬青形成菌根的能力时,AM真菌孢子密度、菌根不同结构的定殖程度是十分有用的指标。     

Colonization and community structure of root-associated microorganisms of Sabina vulgaris with soil depth in a semiarid desert ecosystem with shallow groundwater

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been observed in deep soil layers in arid lands. However, change in AMF community structure with soil depth and vertical distributions of the other root-associated microorganisms are unclear. Here, we examined colonization by AMF and dark septate fungi (DSF), as well as the community structure of AMF and endophytic fungi (EF) and endophytic bacteria (EB) in association with soil depth in a semiarid desert with shallow groundwater. Roots of Sabina vulgaris and soils were collected from surface to groundwater level at 20-cm intervals. Soil chemistry (water content, total N, and available P) and colonization of AMF and DSF were measured. Community structures of AMF, EF, and EB were examined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. AMF colonization decreased with soil depth, although it was mostly higher than 50%. Number of AMF phylotypes decreased with soil depth, but more than five phylotypes were observed at depths up to 100 cm. Number of AMF phylotypes had a significant and positive relationship with soil moisture level within 0-15% of soil water content. DSF colonization was high but limited to soil surface. Number of phylotypes of EF and EB were diverse even in deep soil layers, and the community composition was associated with the colonization and community composition of AMF. This study indicates that AMF species richness in roots decreases but is maintained in deep soil layers in semiarid regions, and change in AMF colonization and community structure associates with community structure of the other root-associated microorganisms.     

The effect of irrigation depth on root growth of some pasture species

Summary Within the limits of the experiment,i.e. 60 cm, the depth of rooting of three pasture species in a sandy loam soil was found to be directly affected by the depth to which irrigation water penetrated the soil. Some practical implications for irrigation farming are discussed.The species reacted differently to the deeper wetting treatments; white clover produced a larger weight of roots, subterranean clover a lesser weight, and there was no difference in the weight of roots with perennial ryegrass. However, the weight of roots relative to the total weight of the plant decreased with increase in the wetting depth in all three species. The effect of growth of roots on the total growth of the plants is discussed and it is suggested that root growth is not a determinate of total production when the supply of nutrients is not limiting.The vertical distribution of the roots is discussed.     

Vegetative reproduction by species with different adaptations to shallow-flooded habitats

In shallow flooded parts of rich fens Mentha aquatica might thrive in deeper water than Epilobium hirsutum but previous experiments have provided no clear indication that the flooding tolerance of these species differs. In this study we investigated, by measuring growth, biomass allocation and vegetative reproduction, whether the impact of water level on vegetative reproduction might produce different lower boundaries on water level gradients. There was a striking contrast between biomass production at high water levels and the field distribution of both species. After 18 wk, the mean biomass of E. hirsutum grown in waterlogged and flooded conditions was 82% and 54%, respectively, of the mean biomass production of drained plants. Biomass of waterlogged and flooded M. aquatica was reduced to 57% and 37% in drained conditions. Waterlogged and flooded E. hirsutum had swollen stem bases and invested a high proportion of biomass in adventitious roots. Stems of M. aquatica did not swell, formed few adventitious roots and maintained an equal proportion of below-ground roots at all water levels. The effect of water level on vegetative reproduction corresponded well with the lower hydrological boundaries of both species. When waterlogged and flooded, most rhizomes of E. hirsutum emerged from above-ground parts of the stem base and were oriented in an upward direction. Plants in flooded soil allocated less biomass to rhizomes and also reduced the number and size of rhizomes. Rhizome formation of M. aquatica on the other hand was not directly affected by water level and only depended on plant size. These differences in vegetative reproduction are discussed in relation to the different abilities of both species to oxygenate their below-ground roots. It was concluded that the mode of adaptation to soil flooding might also affect vegetative reproduction and, therefore, a species' ability for long-term persistence in soil-flooded habitats.