Germline stem cell gene PIWIL2 mediates DNA repair through relaxation of chromatin

DNA damage response (DDR) is an intrinsic barrier of cell to tumorigenesis initiated by genotoxic agents. However, the mechanisms underlying the DDR are not completely understood despite of extensive investigation. Recently, we have reported that ectopic expression of germline stem cell gene PIWIL2 is associated with tumor stem cell development, although the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Here we show that PIWIL2 is required for the repair of DNA-damage induced by various types of genotoxic agents. Upon ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, silenced PIWIL2 gene in normal human fibroblasts was transiently activated after treatment with UV light. This activation was associated with DNA repair, because Piwil2-deficienct mouse embryonic fibroblasts (mili(-/-) MEFs) were defective in cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) repair after UV treatment. As a result, the UV-treated mili(-/-) MEFs were more susceptible to apoptosis, as characterized by increased levels of DNA damage-associated apoptotic proteins, such as active caspase-3, cleaved Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and Bik. The impaired DNA repair in the mili(-/-) MEFs was associated with the reductions of histone H3 acetylation and chromatin relaxation, although the DDR pathway downstream chromatin relaxation appeared not to be directly affected by Piwil2. Moreover, guanine-guanine (Pt-[GG]) and double strand break (DSB) repair were also defective in the mili(-/-) MEFs treated by genotoxic chemicals Cisplatin and ionizing radiation (IR), respectively. The results indicate that Piwil2 can mediate DNA repair through an axis of Piwil2 → histone acetylation → chromatin relaxation upstream DDR pathways. The findings reveal a new role for Piwil2 in DNA repair and suggest that Piwil2 may act as a gatekeeper against DNA damage-mediated tumorigenesis.     

Generation and Characterisation of Cisplatin-Resistant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cell Lines Displaying a Stem-Like Signature

Introduction

Inherent and acquired cisplatin resistance reduces the effectiveness of this agent in the management of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying this process may result in the development of novel agents to enhance the sensitivity of cisplatin.

Methods

An isogenic model of cisplatin resistance was generated in a panel of NSCLC cell lines (A549, SKMES-1, MOR, H460). Over a period of twelve months, cisplatin resistant (CisR) cell lines were derived from original, age-matched parent cells (PT) and subsequently characterized. Proliferation (MTT) and clonogenic survival assays (crystal violet) were carried out between PT and CisR cells. Cellular response to cisplatin-induced apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were examined by FACS analysis. A panel of cancer stem cell and pluripotent markers was examined in addition to the EMT proteins, c-Met and β-catenin. Cisplatin-DNA adduct formation, DNA damage (γH2AX) and cellular platinum uptake (ICP-MS) was also assessed.

Results

Characterisation studies demonstrated a decreased proliferative capacity of lung tumour cells in response to cisplatin, increased resistance to cisplatin-induced cell death, accumulation of resistant cells in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle and enhanced clonogenic survival ability. Moreover, resistant cells displayed a putative stem-like signature with increased expression of CD133+/CD44+cells and increased ALDH activity relative to their corresponding parental cells. The stem cell markers, Nanog, Oct-4 and SOX-2, were significantly upregulated as were the EMT markers, c-Met and β-catenin. While resistant sublines demonstrated decreased uptake of cisplatin in response to treatment, reduced cisplatin-GpG DNA adduct formation and significantly decreased γH2AX foci were observed compared to parental cell lines.

Conclusion

Our results identified cisplatin resistant subpopulations of NSCLC cells with a putative stem-like signature, providing a further understanding of the cellular events associated with the cisplatin resistance phenotype in lung cancer.     

CITED2 silencing sensitizes cancer cells to cisplatin by inhibiting p53 trans-activation and chromatin relaxation on the ERCC1 DNA repair gene

In this study, we show that silencing of CITED2 using small-hairpin RNA (shCITED2) induced DNA damage and reduction of ERCC1 gene expression in HEK293, HeLa and H1299 cells, even in the absence of cisplatin. In contrast, ectopic expression of ERCC1 significantly reduced intrinsic and induced DNA damage levels, and rescued the effects of CITED2 silencing on cell viability. The effects of CITED2 silencing on DNA repair and cell death were associated with p53 activity. Furthermore, CITED2 silencing caused severe elimination of the p300 protein and markers of relaxed chromatin (acetylated H3 and H4, i.e. H3K9Ac and H3K14Ac) in HEK293 cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays further revealed that DNA damage induced binding of p53 along with H3K9Ac or H3K14Ac at the ERCC1 promoter, an effect which was almost entirely abrogated by silencing of CITED2 or p300. Moreover, lentivirus-based CITED2 silencing sensitized HeLa cell line-derived tumor xenografts to cisplatin in immune-deficient mice. These results demonstrate that CITED2/p300 can be recruited by p53 at the promoter of the repair gene ERCC1 in response to cisplatin-induced DNA damage. The CITED2/p300/p53/ERCC1 pathway is thus involved in the cell response to cisplatin and represents a potential target for cancer therapy.     

Reduced Proficiency in Homologous Recombination Underlies the High Sensitivity of Embryonal Carcinoma Testicular Germ Cell Tumors to Cisplatin and Poly (ADP-Ribose) Polymerase Inhibition

Testicular Germ Cell Tumors (TGCT) and patient-derived cell lines are extremely sensitive to cisplatin and other interstrand cross-link (ICL) inducing agents. Nevertheless, a subset of TGCTs are either innately resistant or acquire resistance to cisplatin during treatment. Understanding the mechanisms underlying TGCT sensitivity/resistance to cisplatin as well as the identification of novel strategies to target cisplatin-resistant TGCTs have major clinical implications. Herein, we have examined the proficiency of five embryonal carcinoma (EC) cell lines to repair cisplatin-induced ICLs. Using γH2AX staining as a marker of double strand break formation, we found that EC cell lines were either incapable of or had a reduced ability to repair ICL-induced damage. The defect correlated with reduced Homologous Recombination (HR) repair, as demonstrated by the reduction of RAD51 foci formation and by direct evaluation of HR efficiency using a GFP-reporter substrate. HR-defective tumors cells are known to be sensitive to the treatment with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor. In line with this observation, we found that EC cell lines were also sensitive to PARP inhibitor monotherapy. The magnitude of sensitivity correlated with HR-repair reduced proficiency and with the expression levels and activity of PARP1 protein. In addition, we found that PARP inhibition strongly enhanced the response of the most resistant EC cells to cisplatin, by reducing their ability to overcome the damage. These results point to a reduced proficiency of HR repair as a source of sensitivity of ECs to ICL-inducing agents and PARP inhibitor monotherapy, and suggest that pharmacological inhibition of PARP can be exploited to target the stem cell component of the TGCTs (namely ECs) and to enhance the sensitivity of cisplatin-resistant TGCTs to standard treatments.     

A role for LSH in facilitating DNA methylation by DNMT1 through enhancing UHRF1 chromatin association

LSH, a SNF2 family DNA helicase, is a key regulator of DNA methylation in mammals. How LSH facilitates DNA methylation is not well defined. While previous studies with mouse embryonic stem cells (mESc) and fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from Lsh knockout mice have revealed a role of Lsh in de novo DNA methylation by Dnmt3a/3b, here we report that LSH contributes to DNA methylation in various cell lines primarily by promoting DNA methylation by DNMT1. We show that loss of LSH has a much bigger effect in DNA methylation than loss of DNMT3A and DNMT3B. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that LSH interacts with UHRF1 but not DNMT1 and facilitates UHRF1 chromatin association and UHRF1-catalyzed histone H3 ubiquitination in an ATPase activity-dependent manner, which in turn promotes DNMT1 recruitment to replication fork and DNA methylation. Notably, UHRF1 also enhances LSH association with the replication fork. Thus, our study identifies LSH as an essential factor for DNA methylation by DNMT1 and provides novel insight into how a feed-forward loop between LSH and UHRF1 facilitates DNMT1-mediated maintenance of DNA methylation in chromatin.     

Microtubule stress modifies intra-nuclear location of Msh2 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts

The maintenance of genomic stability in mitotic and meiotic cycles through mismatch repair (MMR) demands the coordination of MMR functions with multiple processes including cell cycle traverse, linked changes in microtubule dynamics, protein translocation at chromatin sites and checkpoint activation. We have studied changes in the intracellular location of the MMR protein Msh2 in response to mitosis, microtubule disruption by colcemid and DNA damage induction by cis-platin in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Image analysis indicated that MEFs have a normally high nuclear retention of Msh2 during interphase with a precipitous dispersal of protein from chromatin sites into the cytoplasm at mitosis. Dispersal was also observed in cisplatin- and colcemid-treated interphase MEFs without any change in the overall Msh2 levels throughout the cell cycle. There was no evidence of co-localization of the punctate cytoplasmic Msh2 foci with any microtubule structures and knockout of Msh2 altered neither the extent of microtubule disruption nor the functional activation of the spindle assembly checkpoint by colcemid. Critically, extra-nuclear relocation of protein did not alter the ability to mount an Msh2-dependent G2 checkpoint delay in response to cisplatin-induced DNA damage. Depletion of the nuclear pool of Msh2 protein in cells undergoing dispersal was found to involve a rapid relocation of protein from AT-rich chromatin sites as defined by coassociation studies exploiting a newly-characterized base-pair preference of the fluorescent DNA binding probe DRAQ5. The study reveals the unexpected mobility of MMR protein pools during the MEF cell cycle and in response to different stress-inducing agents. The results link for the first time microtubule-integrity with intra-nuclear Msh2 protein dynamics. The high nuclear retention of Msh2 in interphase MEFs is in contrast to human tumor cells while the observations on protein dispersal suggest that only low levels of nuclear-located Msh2 are needed for G2 checkpoint activation by DNA damage.     

Microtubule Stress Modifies Intra-Nuclear Location of Msh2 in Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts

The maintenance of genomic stability in mitotic and meiotic cycles through mismatch repair (MMR) demands the co-ordination of MMR functions with multiple processes including cell cycle traverse, linked changes in microtubule dynamics, protein translocation at chromatin sites and checkpoint activation. We have studied changes in the intracellular location of the MMR protein Msh2 in response to mitosis, microtubule disruption by colcemid and DNA damage induction by cis-platin in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Image analysis indicated that MEFs have a normally high nuclear retention of Msh2 during interphase with a precipitous dispersal of protein from chromatin sites into the cytoplasm at mitosis. Dispersal was also observed in cisplatin- and colcemid-treated interphase MEFs without any change in the overall Msh2 levels throughout the cell cycle. There was no evidence of co-localisation of the punctate cytoplasmic Msh2 foci with any microtubule structures and knockout of Msh2 altered neither the extent of microtubule disruption nor the functional activation of the spindle assembly checkpoint by colcemid. Critically, extra-nuclear relocation of protein did not alter the ability to mount an Msh2-dependent G2 checkpoint delay in response to cisplatin-induced DNA damage. Depletion of the nuclear pool of Msh2 protein in cells undergoing dispersal was found to involve a rapid relocation of protein from AT-rich chromatin sites as defined by co-association studies exploiting a newly-characterised base-pair preference of the fluorescent DNA binding probe DRAQ5. The study reveals the unexpected mobility of MMR protein pools during the MEF cell cycle and in response to different stress-inducing agents. The results link for the first time microtubule-integrity with intra-nuclear Msh2 protein dynamics. The high nuclear retention of Msh2 in interphase MEFs is in contrast to human tumour cells while the observations on protein dispersal suggest that only low levels of nuclear-located Msh2 are needed for G2 checkpoint activation by DNA damage.     

Mammalian SIRT1 limits replicative life span in response to chronic genotoxic stress

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae chromatin silencing factor Sir2 suppresses genomic instability and extends replicative life span. In contrast, we find that mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) deficient for SIRT1, a mammalian Sir2 homolog, have dramatically increased resistance to replicative senescence. Extended replicative life span of SIRT1-deficient MEFs correlates with enhanced proliferative capacity under conditions of chronic, sublethal oxidative stress. In this context, SIRT1-deficient cells fail to normally upregulate either the p19(ARF) senescence regulator or its downstream target p53. However, upon acute DNA damage or oncogene expression, SIRT1-deficient cells show normal p19(ARF) induction and cell cycle arrest. Together, our findings demonstrate an unexpected SIRT1 function in promoting replicative senescence in response to chronic cellular stress and implicate p19(ARF) as a downstream effector in this pathway.     

Stem cell protein Piwil2 modulates expression of murine spermatogonial stem cell expressed genes

The piwi family genes are highly conserved during evolution and play essential roles in stem cell self-renewal, gametogenesis, and RNA interference in diverse organisms ranging from Arabidopsis to human. Piwil2, known also as Mili gene, is one of three mouse homologues of piwi. Piwil2 was found in germ cells of adult testis, suggesting that this gene functions in spermatogonial stem cell self-renewal. In order to find molecular mechanisms underlying stem cell activity mediated by Piwil2 gene, an in vitro gain of function cell culture model was established. Messenger RNAs isolated from cells expressing Piwil2 and mRNAs isolated from cells without Piwil2 expression were compared using a stem cell array technique. It was shown that Piwil2 modulates expression of stem cell specific genes, including platelet-derived growth factor receptor, beta polypeptide (Pdgfrb), solute carrier family 2 member 1 (Slc2a1), gap junction membrane channel protein alpha 7 (Gja7), and spermatogonial cell surface markers Thy-1 (CD90), integrin alpha 6 (Itga6), CD9, and spermatogonia specific markers heat shock protein 90 alpha (Hsp90a), and stimulated by retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8). These molecules play essential role in stem cells proliferation (Pdgfrb), energy metabolism (Slc2a1), cell adhesion, cell-cell interaction (Itga6, Gja7, Thy-1, and CD9), and germ cell differentiation (Stra8). The expression of these markers in spermatogonial stem cells and other nongerminal stem cells suggests that these cells share elements of common molecular machinery with stem cells in other tissues which are modulated by stem cell protein Piwil2.     

ATR-Chk2 signaling in p53 activation and DNA damage response during cisplatin-induced apoptosis

Cisplatin is one of the most effective anti-cancer drugs; however, the use of cisplatin is limited by its toxicity in normal tissues, particularly injury of the kidneys. The mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of cisplatin in cancers and side effects in normal tissues are largely unclear. Recent work has suggested a role for p53 in cisplatin-induced renal cell apoptosis and kidney injury; however, the signaling pathway leading to p53 activation and renal apoptosis is unknown. Here we demonstrate an early DNA damage response during cisplatin treatment of renal cells and tissues. Importantly, in the DNA damage response, we demonstrate a critical role for ATR, but not ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) or DNA-PK (DNA-dependent protein kinase), in cisplatin-induced p53 activation and apoptosis. We show that ATR is specifically activated during cisplatin treatment and co-localizes with H2AX, forming nuclear foci at the site of DNA damage. Blockade of ATR with a dominant-negative mutant inhibits cisplatin-induced p53 activation and renal cell apoptosis. Consistently, cisplatin-induced p53 activation and apoptosis are suppressed in ATR-deficient fibroblasts. Downstream of ATR, both Chk1 and Chk2 are phosphorylated during cisplatin treatment in an ATR-dependent manner. Interestingly, following phosphorylation, Chk1 is degraded via the proteosomal pathway, whereas Chk2 is activated. Inhibition of Chk2 by a dominant-negative mutant or gene deficiency attenuates cisplatin-induced p53 activation and apoptosis. In vivo in C57BL/6 mice, ATR and Chk2 are activated in renal tissues following cisplatin treatment. Together, the results suggest an important role for the DNA damage response mediated by ATR-Chk2 in p53 activation and renal cell apoptosis during cisplatin nephrotoxicity.     

Cisplatin treatment of primary and metastatic epithelial ovarian carcinomas generates residual cells with mesenchymal stem cell-like profile

Epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer stem cells (CSC) have been associated with resistance to chemotherapy. Eighty percent of ovarian cancer patients initially respond to platinum-based combination therapy but most return with recurrence and ultimate demise. To better understand such chemoresistance we have assessed the potential role of EMT in tumor cells collected from advanced-stage ovarian cancer patients and the ovarian cancer cell line OVCA 433 in response to cisplatin in vitro. We demonstrate that cisplatin-induced transition from epithelial to mesenchymal morphology in residual cancer cells correlated with reduced E-cadherin, and increased N-cadherin and vimentin expression. The mRNA expression of Snail, Slug, Twist, and MMP-2 were significantly enhanced in response to cisplatin and correlated with increased migration. This coincided with increased cell surface expression of CSC-like markers such as CD44, α2 integrin subunit, CD117, CD133, EpCAM, and the expression of stem cell factors Nanog and Oct-4. EMT and CSC-like changes in response to cisplatin correlated with enhanced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2. The selective MEK inhibitor U0126 inhibited ERK2 activation and partially suppressed cisplatin-induced EMT and CSC markers. In vivo xenotransplantation of cisplatin-treated OVCA 433 cells in zebrafish embryos demonstrated significantly enhanced migration of cells compared to control untreated cells. U0126 inhibited cisplatin-induced migration of cells in vivo, suggesting that ERK2 signaling is critical to cisplatin-induced EMT and CSC phenotypes, and that targeting ERK2 in the presence of cisplatin may reduce the burden of residual tumor, the ultimate cause of recurrence in ovarian cancer patients.     

Deletion of the dual specific phosphatase-4 (DUSP-4) gene reveals an essential non-redundant role for MAP kinase phosphatase-2 (MKP-2) in proliferation and cell survival

Mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-2 (MKP-2) is a type 1 nuclear dual specific phosphatase (DUSP) implicated in a number of cancers. We examined the role of MKP-2 in the regulation of MAP kinase phosphorylation, cell proliferation, and survival responses in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from a novel MKP-2 (DUSP-4) deletion mouse. We show that serum and PDGF induced ERK-dependent MKP-2 expression in wild type MEFs but not in MKP-2(-/-) MEFs. PDGF stimulation of sustained ERK phosphorylation was enhanced in MKP-2(-/-) MEFs, whereas anisomycin-induced JNK was only marginally increased. However, marked effects upon cell growth parameters were observed. Cellular proliferation rates were significantly reduced in MKP-2(-/-) MEFs and associated with a significant increase in cell doubling time. Infection with adenoviral MKP-2 reversed the decrease in proliferation. Cell cycle analysis revealed a block in G(2)/M phase transition associated with cyclin B accumulation and enhanced cdc2 phosphorylation. MEFs from MKP-2(-/-) mice also showed enhanced apoptosis when stimulated with anisomycin correlated with increased caspase-3 cleavage and γH2AX phosphorylation. Increased apoptosis was reversed by adenoviral MKP-2 infection and correlated with selective inhibition of JNK signaling. Collectively, these data demonstrate for the first time a critical non-redundant role for MKP-2 in regulating cell cycle progression and apoptosis.     

Targeted CUL4A inhibition synergizes with cisplatin to yield long-term survival in models of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma through a DDB2-mediated mechanism

Patients with late-stage and human papillomavirus (HPV)-negative head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) continue to have a very poor prognosis. The development of more effective novel therapies that improve overall survival and overcome drug resistance is an urgent priority. Here we report that HNSCC tumors significantly overexpress NEDD8 and exhibit high sensitivity to the first-in-class NEDD8-activating enzyme (NAE) inhibitor pevonedistat. Additional studies established that disruption of NEDD8-mediated protein turnover with pevonedistat dramatically augmented cisplatin-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in HNSCC models. Further analysis revealed that the specific pevonedistat target CUL4A played an essential role in driving the synergy of the pevonedistat and cisplatin combination. Targeted inhibition of CUL4A resulted in significant downregulation in Damage Specific DNA binding protein 2 (DDB2), a DNA-damage recognition protein that promotes nucleotide excision repair and resistance to cisplatin. Silencing of CUL4A or DDB2 enhanced cisplatin-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in a manner similar to that of pevonedistat demonstrating that targeted inhibition of CUL4A may be a novel approach to augment cisplatin therapy. Administration of pevonedistat to mice bearing HNSCC tumors significantly decreased DDB2 expression in tumor cells, increased DNA damage and potently enhanced the activity of cisplatin to yield tumor regression and long-term survival of all animals. Our findings provide strong rationale for clinical investigation of CUL4A inhibition with pevonedistat as a novel strategy to augment the efficacy of cisplatin therapy for patients with HNSCC and identify loss of DDB2 as a key pharmacodynamic mediator controlling sensitivity to this regimen.Subject terms: Preclinical research, Translational research, Cancer therapeutic resistance, Oral cancer