A Multi-Forest Comparison of Dietary Preferences and Seed Dispersal by <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Ateles</Emphasis> spp

Investigations of coevolutionary relationships between plants and the animals that disperse their seeds suggest that disperser-plant interactions are likely shaped by diffuse, rather than species-to-species, coevolution. We studied the role of dietary plasticity in shaping the potential for diffuse coevolution by comparing dietary fruit preferences and seed dispersal by 3 species of spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) in 4 moist forests in Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Surinam. In all forests, spider monkeys were highly frugivorous and preyed upon seeds of few species. We estimated dietary use of fruiting taxa based on absolute consumption and preference, which accounts for resource availability. Of the 59 genera that comprised the 20 most frequently consumed genera summed in each forest, only 3—Brosimum (Moraceae), Cecropia (Cecropiaceae) and Virola (Myristicaceae)—ranked within the top 20 at every forest. Most genera were within the 20 most frequently consumed at only 1 or 2 forests. Based on preferences, only 4 genera ranked in the 20 most-preferred in all 4 forests: Brosimum, Cecropia, Ficus (Moracae), and Virola. Patterns in fruit consumption and preference at the familial level were similar in that only 2 families—Myristicaceae and Moraceae—were in the 10 most-consumed or most-preferred in all 4 forests. Interforest variation in plant specific composition and abundances and supra-annual fruiting phenologies, combined with dietary flexibility of Ateles spp., may partly explain these patterns. Our results suggest that variation in plant community structure strongly influences dietary preferences, and hence, seed dispersal by spider monkeys. Thus, diffuse coevolution in spider monkey-plant relationships may be limited to few taxa at the generic and familial levels.     

Social Behavior,Reproductive Strategies,and Population Genetic Structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lagothrix poeppigii</Emphasis>

For species of primates in which females emigrate, we would expect males within groups to be related to one another. Kin selection theory suggests that these males should associate preferentially with one another, be more affiliative and cooperative with one another than females are, and compete less overtly with one another over reproductive opportunities than males in female philopatric taxa do. Precisely these patterns of social behavior characterize well-studied populations of 2 of the 3 atelin primate genera: spider monkeys (Ateles) and muriquis (Brachyteles). For the third atelin genus, Lagothrix, patterns of intragroup social behavior have been less well-documented. We studied the social and reproductive behavior of lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii) in Ecuador during a one-year observational study and subsequently used molecular techniques to investigate population genetic structure and dispersal patterns for this taxon. Among adult male woolly monkeys, both affiliative and agonistic interactions were rare, and males were seldom in close proximity to one another. Relationships among male woolly monkeys are best characterized as tolerant, especially in the context of mating wherein direct competition among males was minimal despite the fact that females mated with multiple males. Relationships among females were likewise generally tolerant but nonaffiliative, though females often directed harassment towards copulating pairs. Affiliative interactions that did occur among woolly monkeys tended to be directed either between the sexes—primarily from female to male—or from younger towards older males, and the proximity partners of females tended to be members of the opposite sex. These results suggest that bonds between the sexes may be more important than same-sex social relationships and that direct female-female competition is an important feature of woolly monkey reproductive biology. Our genetic results indicate that, as in other atelins, dispersal by females is common, but some male dispersal likely occurs as well. In some but not all groups we studied, nonjuvenile males within social groups were more closely related to one another on average than females were, which is consistent with greater male than female philopatry. However, differences in these patterns among our study groups may reflect local variation in dispersal behavior.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caenorhabditis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">briggsae</Emphasis> genome contains active <Emphasis Type="Italic">CbmaT1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tcb1</Emphasis> transposons

The maT clade of transposons is a group of transposable elements intermediate in sequence and predicted protein structure to mariner and Tc transposons, with a distribution thus far limited to a few invertebrate species. We present evidence, based on searches of publicly available databases, that the nematode Caenorhabditis briggsae has several maT-like transposons, which we have designated as CbmaT elements, dispersed throughout its genome. We also describe two additional transposon sequences that probably share their evolutionary history with the CbmaT transposons. One resembles a fold back variant of a CbmaT element, with long (380-bp) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that show a high degree (71%) of identity to CbmaT1. The other, which shares only the 26-bp ITR sequences with one of the CbmaT variants, is present in eight nearly identical copies, but does not have a transposase gene and may therefore be cross mobilised by a CbmaT transposase. Using PCR-based mobility assays, we show that CbmaT1 transposons are capable of excising from the C. briggsae genome. CbmaT1 excised approximately 500 times less frequently than Tcb1 in the reference strain AF16, but both CbmaT1 and Tcb1 excised at extremely high frequencies in the HK105 strain. The HK105 strain also exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous induction of unc-22 mutants, suggesting that it may be a mutator strain of C. briggsae.     

Floral development and systematic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arillastrum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allosyncarpia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stockwellia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptopsis</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

We have investigated the floral ontogeny of Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis (of the eucalypt group, Myrtaceae) using scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Several critical characters for establishing relationships between these genera and to the eucalypts have been determined. The absence of compound petaline primordia in Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis excludes these taxa from the eucalypt clade. Post-anthesis circumscissile abscission of the hypanthium above the ovary in Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia is evidence that these three taxa form a monophyletic group; undifferentiated perianth parts and elongated fusiform buds are characters that unite Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis as sister taxa. No floral characters clearly associate Arillastrum with either the eucalypt clade or the clade of Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia.We gratefully acknowledge Clyde Dunlop and Bob Harwood (Northern Territory Herbarium) for collecting specimens of Allosyncarpia, and Bruce Gray (Atherton) for collecting specimens of Stockwellia. The Australian National Herbarium (CANB) kindly lent herbarium specimens of Eucalyptopsis for examination. This research was supported by a University of Melbourne Research Development Grant to Andrew Drinnan.     

Phylogenetic analyses of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Uromyces viciae-fabae</Emphasis> and its varieties on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vicia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lathyrus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pisum</Emphasis> in Japan

A pea rust fungus, Uromyces viciae-fabae, has been classified into two varieties, var. viciae-fabae and var. orobi, based on differences in urediniospore wall thickness and putative host specificity in Japan. In principal component analyses, morphological features of urediniospores and teliospores of 94 rust specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum did not show definite host-specific morphological groups. In molecular analyses, 23 Uromyces specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum formed a single genetic clade based on D1/D2 and ITS regions. Four isolates of U. viciae-fabae from V. cracca and V. unijuga could infect and sporulate on P. sativum. These results suggest that U. viciae-fabae populations on different host plants are not biologically differentiated into groups that can be recognized as varieties.Contribution no. 184, Laboratory of Plant Parasitic Mycology, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba, Japan     

Dispersal and Burial Behavior in Larvae of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysomya megacephala</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysomya albiceps</Emphasis> (Diptera,Calliphoridae)

Blowflies use discrete and ephemeral substrates to feed their larva. After they run out of food, the larvae begin to disperse in order to find adequate places for pupation or additional food sources, a process named post-feeding larval dispersal. Briefly state the aspects and why they are important were studied in a circular arena of 25 cm in diameter and covered with wood shavings to a height of 40 cm allowing post-feeding dispersal from the center of the arena. Larvae of both Chrysomya albiceps and C. megacephala were used in five experiments for each species. For each pupa location, determined as distance from the center, depth, and weight were evaluated. Statistical tests were done to verify the relation between weight, depth and distance for pupation and for larvae of two species shows that the media distance is significantly different for two species and for C. megacephala this distance is greater than the distance for C. albiceps. The depth too is different for each species, as the larvae of C. megacephala buries deeper than C. albiceps. With relation of weight, there is no statistic evidence that have any difference between weights for pupation for each species.     

Predicted and verified distributions of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles geoffroyi</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta palliata</Emphasis> in Oaxaca,Mexico

Primate conservation requires a better knowledge of the distributions and statuses of populations in both large areas of habitat and in areas for which we currently have no information. We focused on spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) and howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. This Mexican state has protected large tracts of forest, and has historical records for both primates, although very little is known about them. To update our knowledge of the distributions of these primates and identify potential areas in which they are present, we modeled their geographic distributions by characterizing their ecological niches using the genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), performed interviews and carried out field surveys. The predicted distributions, surveys and interviews indicate that the distributions of these primates are restricted to northeastern Oaxaca. The results suggest that spider monkeys occupy a wider area and elevational range than howler monkeys. Throughout that range there is a wide variety of suitable habitats for these primates. Most of the sites where monkeys were recorded in the field are not officially protected and there was evidence of hunting and habitat destruction. It is important to improve protection, economic alternatives and environmental education as we move towards an integral solution for the conservation of these species. Validation of the GARP model was done for A. geoffroyi, since we had obtained enough field data for this species; this validation indicated that the predicted distribution of the species was statistically better than expected by chance. Hence, ecological niche modeling is a useful approach when performing an initial assessment to identify distribution patterns, detecting suitable areas for future exploration, and for conservation planning. Our findings provide an improved basis for primate conservation and productive fieldwork in Oaxaca.     

The ontogenetic basis for floral diversity in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agonis</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptospermum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kunzea</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

Floral development in three species each of Leptospermum and Kunzea, and one species of Agonis, is described and compared. Differences in the number of stamens and their arrangement in the flower at anthesis are determined by the growth dynamics of the bud. In Leptospermum, early expansion of the bud is predominantly in the axial direction and causes the stamen primordia to be initiated in antepetalous chevrons. In Kunzea, early expansion occurs predominantly in the lateral direction and successive iterations of stamen primordia are inserted alternately at more or less the same level. In both genera, further expansion in the lateral plane spreads the stamens into a ring around the hypanthium. Agonis flexuosa is similar to Leptospermum. Other variable factors include the timing at which stamen initiation commences (earlier in Leptospermum than Kunzea), the duration of stamen initiation (hence the total number of stamens produced – varies within genera), and very late differential expansion that forces stamens into secondary antesepalous groups in A. flexuosa and L. myrsinoides.The authors thank Dr H. Toelken for kindly providing some material and the impetus for this project. This research was supported by Australian Research Council grant AS19131815.     

Parasitism <Emphasis Type="Italic">versus</Emphasis> mutualism in the ant-garden parabiosis between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Camponotus femoratus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crematogaster levior</Emphasis>

Ant-gardens represent a special type of association between ants and epiphytes. Frequently, two ant species can share the same nest in a phenomenon known as ‘parabiosis’, but the exact nature (i.e., mutualistic or parasitic) of this interaction is the subject of debate. We thus attempted to clarify the mutual costs and benefits for each partner (ants and plants) in the Crematogaster levior/Camponotus femoratus ant-garden parabiosis. The ants’ response to experimental foliar damage to the epiphytes and to the host tree as well as their behavior and interactions during prey capture were investigated to see if the purported parasitic status of Cr. levior could be demonstrated in either the ant-ant or in the ant-plant interactions. The results show that both species take part in protecting the epiphytes, refuting the role of Cr. levior as a parasite of the ant-garden mutualism. During capture of large prey Ca. femoratus took advantage from the ability of Cr. levior to discover prey; by following Cr. levior trails Ca. femoratus workers discover the prey in turn and usurp them during agonistic interactions. Nevertheless, the trade-off between the costs and benefits of this association seems then to be favorable to both species because it is known that Cr. levior benefits from Ca. femoratus building the common carton nests and furnishing protection from vertebrates. Consequently, parabiosis can then be defined as the only mutualistic association existing between ant species, at least in ant-gardens. Received 31 August 2006 ; revised 8 December 2006 ; accepted 12 December 2006     

Distribution of similar self-incompatibility (<Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>) haplotypes in different genera,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Raphanus</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Brassica</Emphasis>

The nucleotide sequences of ten SP11 and nine SRK alleles in Raphanus sativus were determined, and deduced amino acid sequences were compared with those of Brassica SP11 and SRK. The amino acid sequence identity of class-I SP11s in R. sativus was about 30% on average, the highest being 52.2%, while that of the S domain of class-I SRK was 77.0% on average and ranged from 70.8% to 83.9%. These values were comparable to those of SP11 and SRK in Brassica oleracea and B. rapa. SP11 of R. sativus S-21 was found to be highly similar to SP11 of B. rapa S-9 (89.5% amino acid identity), and SRK of R. sativus S-21 was similar to SRK of B. rapa S-9 (91.0%). SP11 and SRK of R. sativus S-19 were also similar to SP11 and SRK of B. oleracea S-20, respectively. These similarities of both SP11 and SRK alleles between R. sativus and Brassica suggest that these S haplotype pairs originated from the same ancestral S haplotypes.     

In planta transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Notocactus scopa</Emphasis> cv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Soonjung</Emphasis> by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>

Notocactus scopa cv. Soonjung was subjected to in planta Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation with vacuum infiltration, pin-pricking, and a combination of the two methods. The pin-pricking combined with vacuum infiltration (20-30 cmHg for 15 min) resulted in a transformation efficiency of 67-100%, and the expression of the uidA and nptII genes was detected in transformed cactus. The established in planta transformation technique generated a transgenic cactus with higher transformation efficiency, shortened selection process, and stable gene expression via asexual reproduction. All of the results showed that the in planta transformation method utilized in the current study provided an efficient and time-saving procedure for the delivery of genes into the cactus genome, and that this technique can be applied to other asexually reproducing succulent plant species.     

Cloning and expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">mel</Emphasis> gene from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus thuringiensis</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis>

Previous work from our laboratory has shown that most of Bacillus thuringiensis strains possess the ability to produce melanin in the presence of l-tyrosine at elevated temperatures (42 °C). Furthermore, it was shown that the melanin produced by B. thuringiensis was synthesized by the action of tyrosinase, which catalyzed the conversion of l-tyrosine, via l-DOPA, to melanin. In this study, the tyrosinase-encoding gene (mel) from B. thuringiensis 4D11 was cloned using PCR techniques and expressed in Escherichia coli DH5 . A DNA fragment with 1179 bp which contained the intact mel gene in the recombinant plasmid pGEM1179 imparted the ability to synthesize melanin to the E. coli recipient strain. The nucleotide sequence of this DNA fragment revealed an open reading frame of 744 bp, encoding a protein of 248 amino acids. The novel mel gene from B.thuringiensis expressed in E. coli DH5 conferred UV protection on the recipient strain.     

Terrestrial Behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles</Emphasis> spp

Spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) are well known for their highly arboreal lifestyle, spending much of their time in the highest levels of the canopy and rarely venturing to the ground. To investigate terrestriality by Ateles and to illuminate the conditions under which spider monkeys venture to the ground, we analyzed ad libitum data from 5 study sites, covering 2 species and 5 subspecies. Three of the sites are in Central/North America: Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama (Ateles geoffroyi panamensis), Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica (A. g. frontatus), and Punta Laguna, Mexico (A. g. yucatanensis). The 2 remaining sites are in South America: Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Perú (A. belzebuth chamek) and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (A. b. belzebuth). Terrestrialism by Ateles at all sites is rare; however, it is more restricted at the 2 South American sites. In South America, ground use only occurred in the contexts of eating soil or rotten wood and visiting salt licks. In contrast at the 3 sites with Ateles geoffroyi it rarely occurred in a feeding context, but instead more frequently while drinking from streams during the dry season, by adult females escaping attack by adult males, and as part of a chase game. In addition, on BCI adult males were on the ground before attacking adult females. We discuss potential explanations, e.g., climate, species differences, predation pressure, for the differences between the Central/North and South American observations.     

Thidiazuron Promotes <Emphasis Type="Italic">In Vitro</Emphasis> Plant Regeneration of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arachis correntina</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Leguminosae</Emphasis>) via Organogenesis

Arachis correntina (Burkart) Krapov. & W.C. Gregory is a herbaceous perennial leguminous plant growing in the Northeast of the Province Corrientes, Argentina. It is important as forage. The development of new A. correntina cultivars with improved traits could be facilitated through the application of biotechnological strategies. The purpose of this study was to investigate the plant regeneration potential of mature leaves of A. correntina in tissue culture. Buds were induced from both petiole and laminae on 0.7% agar-solidified medium containing 3% sucrose, salts and vitamins from Murashige and Skoog (MS) supplemented with 0.5–25 M thidiazuron (TDZ). Shoot induction was achieved by transference of calli with buds to MS supplemented with 5 M TDZ. Fifty-four percent of the regenerated shoot rooted on MS + 5 M naphthaleneacetic acid. Histological studies revealed that shoots regenerated via organogenesis.     

Biotransformation of racemic diisophorone by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cephalosporium aphidicola</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neurospora crassa</Emphasis>

Racemic diisophorone (500 mg) was converted by Cephalosporium aphidicola and Neurospora crassa over 10 days at 25 °C to 8β-hydroxydiisophorone in yields of 10% (52 mg) and 20% (103 mg), respectively. The structure was established by IR, specific rotation, mass spectral, 1D and 2D-NMR studies.Revisions requested 2 March 2005 and 21 April 2005; Revisions received 8 April 2005 and 10 May 2005     

Detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">dubliniensis</Emphasis> in Venezuela

Over the past decades there has been a significant increase in fungal infections caused by Candida species, and continues to be common in immunocompromised individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Although Candida albicans remains the fungal species most frequently isolated as an opportunistic oral pathogen, other non-albicans are often identified in this cohort of patients, including C. dubliniensis. This yeast is closely related to and shares many phenotypic characteristics with C. albicans. Colonies of these two species appear morphologically identical when not grown on special media. The shared phenotypic characteristics of C. dubliniensis and C. albicans suggest that many C. dubliniensis isolates may have been misidentified as C. albicans in the past. The present studies aim is to recover and identify C. dubliniensis, and presumptive clinical C. albicans, from the oral cavities of HIV-seropositive individuals, comparing conventional media to obtain a simple, low-cost and reliable identification system for C. dubliniensis. A total of 16 isolates (3,98%) had been obtained from 402 HIV infected individuals with recurrent oropharyngitis and were identified as C. dubliniensis. Out of these C. dubliniensis isolates 19% were resistant, with MICs above 64 μg/ml to fluconazole. This constitutes, to the authors knowledge the first recovery of this organism in Venezuela.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of Perilla (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Perilla frutescens</Emphasis>)

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system for perilla (Perilla frutescens Britt) was developed. Agrobacterium strain EHA105 harboring binary vector pBK I containing bar and γ-tmt cassettes or pIG121Hm containing nptII, hpt, and gusA cassettes were used for transformation. Three different types of explant, hypocotyl, cotyledon and leaf, were evaluated for transformation and hypocotyl explants resulted in the highest transformation efficiency with an average of 3.1 and 2.2%, with pBK I and pIG121Hm, respectively. The Perilla spp. displayed genotype-response for transformation. The effective concentrations of selective agents were 2 mg l⁻¹ phosphinothricin (PPT) and 150 mg l⁻¹ kanamycin, respectively, for shoot induction and 1 mg l⁻¹ PPT and 125 mg l⁻¹ kanamycin, respectively, for shoot elongation. The transformation events were confirmed by herbicide Basta spray or histochemical GUS staining of T₀ and T₁ plants. The T-DNA integration and transgene inheritance were confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis of random samples of T₀ and T₁ transgenic plants.