Estimates of connectivity reveal non-equilibrium epiphyte occurrence patterns almost 180 years after habitat decline

Habitat loss is a major cause of species decline and extinction. Immediately after habitat loss, species occurrences are not in equilibrium with the new landscape and more closely reflect the previous landscape structure. Species with slow colonisation–extinction dynamics may display long time-lags before reaching a new equilibrium. We investigated the importance of connectivity to current and historical dispersal sources with the aim of explaining the occurrence pattern of epiphytic lichens with different traits among 104 old oaks. We used oak survey data collected from 1830 and 2009 for a Swedish landscape where oak densities declined drastically shortly after 1830. We fitted a commonly used connectivity measure and estimated the confidence interval for the spatial scale parameter. Small differences in the spatial scale parameter resulted in large differences in model fit. Connectivity to trees in 1830 better explained the occurrence of three of the four species compared to the connectivity in 2009. The explanatory power of the historical landscape structure was highest for the species with traits that may result in a low colonisation rate—both a narrow niche (here few suitable trees) and large dispersal propagules. The results suggest that oak-dependent epiphytic lichens have not reached equilibrium with the spatial landscape structure 180 years after the drastic decline in habitat. For the long-term persistence of epiphytes associated with old trees, conservation efforts should focus on (1) protecting and restoring stands where specialised species with large dispersal propagules (i.e. with low colonisation rates) occur today and (2) promoting tree regeneration in their near vicinity.     

Occurrence of Larca lata H.J. Hansen (Pseudoscorpionida: Garypidae) and Allochernes wideri C.L. Koch (Pseudoscorpionida: Chernetidae) in tree hollows in relation to habitat quality and density

Many beetles associated with old trees are on national red lists, but pseudoscorpions living in similar habitats have received little attention. This study reports the habitat and occurrence patterns of two species of pseudoscorpions living in hollow trees. Their occurrence has been assessed by sieving wood mould from 274 oaks in southeastern Sweden and from museum specimens collected in Sweden. Larca lata is confined to hollow oaks with a large girth and a plentiful supply of wood mould. Allochernes wideri is much less particular about wood mould volume, trunk diameter and tree species. Larca lata inhabits hollow trunks with characteristics that are typical of very old trees, whereas A. wideri predominantly occurs in trunks in an earlier stage of hollow formation. Larca lata was almost exclusively found in larger assemblages of hollow oaks, which suggests long-term survival may be difficult when the network of suitable hollow trees is too sparse. Larca lata is a rare species in Europe and probably vulnerable to extinction, since it is dependent on a habitat which has declined severely in the last few centuries.     

Relative importance of host plant patch geometry and habitat quality on the patterns of occupancy,extinction and density of the monophagous butterfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Iolana iolas</Emphasis>

Habitat fragmentation is a major cause of species rarity and decline because it increases local population extinctions and reduces recolonisation rates of remnant patches. Although two major patch characteristics (area and connectivity) have been used to predict distribution patterns in fragmented landscapes, other factors can affect the occurrence of a species as well as the probability of it becoming extinct. In this paper, we study the spatial structure and dynamics of the butterfly Iolana iolas in a 75-patch network of its host plant (Colutea hispanica) to determine the relative importance of patch area, connectivity and habitat quality characteristics on occupancy, extinction and density over the period 2003–2006. Occupancy in 2003, incidence (proportion of years occupied) and probability of extinction were mostly affected by patch area. Smaller patches were less likely to be occupied because they had a higher probability of extinction, partly due to environmental stochasticity. The density of I. iolas was negatively related to patch area in all study years. Only in 2004 was the density of I. iolas positively influenced by fruit production per plant. Our results suggest that for I. iolas, and probably for other specialist butterflies with clearly delimited resource requirements, metapopulation dynamics can be satisfactorily predicted using only geometric variables because most habitat characteristics are subsumed in patch area. However, this hypothesis should be subject to further testing under diverse environmental conditions to evaluate the extent of its generalisation.     

Relative contributions of local and regional factors to species richness and total density of butterflies and moths in semi-natural grasslands

Metapopulation theory predicts that species richness and total population density of habitat specialists increase with increasing area and regional connectivity of the habitat. To test these predictions, we examined the relative contributions of habitat patch area, connectivity of the regional habitat network and local habitat quality to species richness and total density of butterflies and day-active moths inhabiting semi-natural grasslands. We studied butterflies and moths in 48 replicate landscapes situated in southwest Finland, including a focal patch and the surrounding network of other semi-natural grasslands within a radius of 1.5 km from the focal patch. By applying the method of hierarchical partitioning, which can distinguish between independent and joint contributions of individual explanatory variables, we observed that variables of the local habitat quality (e.g. mean vegetation height and nectar plant abundance) generally showed the highest independent effect on species richness and total density of butterflies and moths. Habitat area did not show a significant independent contribution to species richness and total density of butterflies and moths. The effect of habitat connectivity was observed only for total density of the declining butterflies and moths. These observations indicate that the local habitat quality is of foremost importance in explaining variation in species richness and total density of butterflies and moths. In addition, declining butterflies and moths have larger populations in well-connected networks of semi-natural grasslands. Our results suggest that, while it is crucial to maintain high-quality habitats by management, with limited resources it would be appropriate to concentrate grassland management and restoration to areas with well-connected grassland networks in which the declining species currently have their strongest populations. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Patterns and drivers of lichen species composition in a NW-European lowland deciduous woodland complex

We surveyed lichens in an extensive area of lowland deciduous oak and beech dominated forest under wood pasture management within the New Forest National Park, southern England. This provided the basis for an investigation of factors affecting the species density and composition of epiphytic lichen communities. Fifteen 1 hectare plots were established in the same sites as a parallel invertebrate survey, of which nine were in old growth forest and six in oak plantations of between c. 150 and 300 years old. In each plot 12 trees were identified for sampling and lichens were sampled on four aspects of each trunk. Results at the plot level showed that species density was significantly higher in the old growth woodland plots from those in plantations. Plot age had a significant effect on species on oak but this was not significant for lichen communities on beech. The species density of lichens associated with Trentepohliaceae photobionts on oaks showed a linear positive relationship with increasing plot age while the species density of species with other coccal green Chlorophyta decreased with age of the plot. A major part of the lichenised fungi with Trentepohliaceae photobionts includes indicator and notable species used in conservation evaluation and this component is most affected by fragmentation and isolation of forest sites. The results emphasise the importance of long term connectivity and ecological continuity in this extensive mosaic of lowland deciduous forest.     

Habitat suitability models to make conservation decisions based on areas of high species richness and endemism

Biodiversity positively relates with the provisioning of ecosystem services and preserving areas with elevated diversity of highly-functional species could help to ensure human well-being. Most studies addressed to make these decisions use maps relying on species occurrences, where sites containing several species are proposed as priority conservation areas. These maps, however, may underestimate species richness because of the incompleteness of occurrence data. To improve this methodology, we propose using habitat suitability models to estimate the potential distribution of species from occurrence data, and later shaping richness maps by overlapping these predicted distribution ranges. We tested this proposal with Mexican oaks because they provide several ecosystem services and habitat suitability models of species were calibrated with MaxEnt. We used linear regressions to compare the outputs of these predictive maps with those of maps based on species occurrences only and, for both mapping methods, we assessed how much surface of sites with elevated richness and endemism of oaks is currently included within nature reserves. Both mapping methods indicated that oak species are concentrated in mountain regions of Mexico, but predictive maps based on habitat suitability models indicated higher oak richness and endemism that maps based on species occurrences only. Our results also indicated that nature reserves cover a small fraction of areas harboring elevated richness and endemism of oaks. These results suggest that estimating richness across extensive geographic regions using habitat suitability models quickly provides accurate information to make conservation decisions for highly-functional species groups.     

Connectivity compensates for low habitat quality and small patch size in the butterfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cupido minimus</Emphasis>

Habitat size, habitat isolation and habitat quality are regarded as the main determinants of butterfly occurrence in fragmented landscapes. To analyze the relationship between the occurrence of the butterfly Cupido minimus and these factors, patch occupancy of the immature stages in patches of its host plant Anthyllis vulneraria was studied in the nature reserve Hohe Wann in Bavaria (Germany). In 2001 and 2002, 82 A. vulneraria patches were surveyed for the presence of C. minimus larvae. The occurrence was largely affected by the size of the food plant patches. In a habitat model that uses multiple logistic regression, the type of management and habitat connectivity are further determinants of species distribution. Internal and temporal validation demonstrate the stability and robustness of the developed habitat models. Additionally, it was proved that the colonization rate of C. minimus was significantly influenced by the distance to the next occupied Anthyllis patch. Concerning long-term survival of (meta-) populations in fragmented landscapes, the results show that lower habitat quality may be compensated by higher connectivity between host plant patches. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Predicting spatial occurrence of beetles and pseudoscorpions in hollow oaks in southeastern Sweden

We modelled presence/absence per tree of beetles and pseudoscorpions living in tree hollows in relation to trunk circumference, habitat openness, and connectivity (= density of hollow oaks in the surrounding area), using data from 281 oaks. The presence/absence models were then used to predict species’ occurrences in a county (11,600 km²) in southeastern Sweden. For eight of the nine species, the most parsimonious occupancy model included a positive relationship with connectivity and at least one tree characteristic. Occupancy underestimates from occurrence records—the ratio of the area of occupancy based on our predictive model to the area of occupancy based on occurrence records—varied between 3 and 83 among species when using occurrence records up to 1993, with significantly larger underestimates for smaller beetle species. Today (after extensive surveys), underestimation has decreased to 1.3–25, confirming that calculations solely based on species occurrence records greatly underestimate the area of occupancy. We suggest this should be taken into account to a greater extent and in a clearer way than today when constructing red lists. The radius of the connectivity measure that generated the best fit varied between 135 and 2,857 m among species, with longer distances for more threatened species. Consequently, preservation of the most threatened species (Elater ferrugineus and Tenebrio opacus) requires conservation efforts at larger spatial scales than required to protect Osmoderma eremita, which frequently has been used as an indicator and umbrella species.     

Patch quality and connectivity influence spatial dynamics in a dune wolfspider

The spatial population dynamics of the wolfspider Pardosa monticola, inhabiting patchily distributed grasslands in the Flemish coastal dunes of Belgium and Northern France were investigated with incidence function models using field survey data from 1998 and 2000. Vegetation height and patch size were related to habitat quality. Mark-recapture experiments revealed maximum cursorial dispersal distances of 280 m for moss dunes and 185 m for higher dune grassland. Higher shrub vegetation appeared to be dispersal barriers. These habitat-dependant cursorial distances and the theoretically estimated ballooning distance were included with patch distances into a connectivity index for both dispersal modes. Forward multiple regression indicated that patch occurrence was influenced by habitat quality and ballooning connectivity. Habitat quality and cursorial connectivity explained patterns in short-term colonisation. Extinction appeared to be stochastic and not related to habitat quality and connectivity. Genetic differentiation and variability was low. The discrepancy between the estimated low dispersal capacity and the indirect estimate of gene flow ( F(ST)) indicates that historical population dynamics and/or historical ballooning dispersal influence the genetic structure in this species.     

The effects of plant traits on species' responses to present and historical patch configurations and patch age

Patch configuration is viewed as an important factor affecting the distributions of plant species. Although a number of studies have explored the relationship between plant life‐history traits and species’ distributions in fragmented landscapes, the effect of individual traits on the dependence of species on historical versus current landscape configurations remains unclear. We identified the extent to which present (2000s) and historical (1843, 1954, 1980s) patch configurations (area and connectivity) and patch age affected the distributions of 99 species inhabiting dry calcareous grasslands. We used traits related to dispersal, survival, growth and habitat preferences to explain the dependence of 60 of these species on present and historical configurations, and the age of grassland patches. We found that most of the species had an affinity to currently or historically large, older and more isolated patches. This suggests that many dry grassland species are not in equilibrium with the current landscape, as their distributions still reflect past landscape structures. Rapidly growing species with higher seed bank longevity and nutrient requirements primarily occur in young, large grassland patches whereas species with the opposite traits occur in older, historically large and currently more isolated smaller patches. We hypothesise that patch quality is the reason why different species occupy patches of different age. Species occupying young, large patches commonly disperse by endozoochory. By contrast, no dispersal trait is associated with species occupying old, usually isolated patches. Our results suggest that species occupying old patches are exposed to higher potential risk of extinction, as their distributions are probably limited by the low number and connectivity of available suitable patches and poor dispersal ability. We thus suggest that the dynamics of these species can effectively be supported by improving the quality of young grassland patches.     

Remnants fragments preserve genetic diversity of the old forest lichen <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lobaria pulmonaria</Emphasis> in a fragmented Mediterranean mountain forest

Fragmentation represents a serious threat to biodiversity worldwide, however its effects on epiphytic organisms is still poorly understood. We study the effect of habitat fragmentation on the genetic population structure and diversity of the red-listed epiphytic lichen, Lobaria pulmonaria, in a Mediterranean forest landscape. We tested the relative importance of forest patch quality, matrix surrounding fragments and connectivity on the genetic variation within populations and the differentiation among them. A total of 855 thalli were sampled in 44 plots (400 m²) of 31 suitable forest fragments (beeches and oaks), in the Sierra de Ayllón in central Spain. Variables related to landscape attributes of the remnant forest patches such as size and connectivity and also the nature of the matrix or tree species had no significant effects on the genetic diversity of L. pulmonaria. Values of genetic diversity (Nei’s) were only affected by habitat quality estimated as the age patches. Most of the variation (76%) in all populations was observed at the smallest sampled unit (plots). Using multiple regression analysis, we found that habitat quality is more important in explaining the genetic structure of the L. pulmonaria populations than spatial distance. The relatively high level of genetic diversity of the species in old forest patches regardless of patch size indicates that habitat quality in a highly structured forest stand determines the population size and distribution pattern of this species and its associated lichen community. Thus, conservation programmes of Mediterranean mountain forests have to prioritize area and habitat quality of old forest patches.     

Connectivity, Probabilities and Persistence: Comparing Reserve Selection Strategies

Reserve selection methods are often based on information on species’ occurrence. This can be presence–absence data, or probabilities of occurrence estimated with species distribution models. However, the effect of the choice of distribution model on the outcome of a reserve selection method has been ignored. Here we test a range of species distribution models with three different reserve selection methods. The distribution models had different combinations of variables related to habitat quality and connectivity (which incorporates the effect of spatial habitat configuration on species occurrence). The reserve selection methods included (i) a minimum set approach without spatial considerations; (ii) a clustering reserve selection method; and (iii) a dynamic approach where probabilities of occurrence are re-evaluated according to the spatial pattern of selected sites. The sets of selected reserves were assessed by re-computing species probability of occurrence in reserves using the best probability model and assuming loss of non-selected habitat. The results show that particular choices of distribution model and selection method may lead to reserves that overestimate the achieved target; in other words, species may seem to be represented but the reserve network may actually not be able to support them in the long-term. Instead, the use of models that incorporated connectivity as a variable resulted in the selection of aggregated reserves with higher potential for species long-term persistence. As reserve design aims at the long-term protection of species, it is important to be aware of the uncertainties related to model and method choice and their implications.     

Genetic variability and the effect of habitat fragmentation in spotted suslik Spermophilus suslicus populations from two different regions

Endangered species worldwide exist in remnant populations, often within fragmented landscapes. Although assessment of genetic diversity in fragmented habitats is very important for conservation purposes, it is usually impossible to evaluate the amount of diversity that has actually been lost. Here, we compared population structure and levels of genetic diversity within populations of spotted suslik Spermophilus suslicus, inhabiting two different parts of the species range characterized by different levels of habitat connectivity. We used microsatellites to analyze 10 critically endangered populations located at the western part of the range, where suslik habitat have been severely devastated due to agriculture industrialization. Their genetic composition was compared with four populations from the eastern part of the range where the species still occupies habitat with reasonable levels of connectivity. In the western region, we detected extreme population structure (F _ST = 0.20) and levels of genetic diversity (Allelic richness ranged from 1.45 to 3.07) characteristic for highly endangered populations. Alternatively, in the eastern region we found significantly higher allelic richness (from 5.09 to 5.81) and insignificant population structure (F _ST = 0.03). As we identified a strong correlation between genetic and geographic distance and a lack of private alleles in the western region, we conclude that extreme population structure and lower genetic diversity is due to recent habitat loss. Results from this study provide guidelines for conservation and management of this highly endangered species.     

Developing landscape habitat models for rare amphibians with small geographic ranges: a case study of Siskiyou Mountains salamanders in the western USA

To advance the development of conservation planning for rare species with small geographic ranges, we determined habitat associations of Siskiyou Mountains salamanders (Plethodon stormi) and developed habitat suitability models at fine (10 ha), medium (40 ha), and broad (202 ha) spatial scales using available Geographic Information Systems data and logistic regression analysis with an information theoretic approach. Across spatial scales, there was very little support for models with structural habitat features, such as tree canopy cover and conifer diameter. Model-averaged 95% confidence intervals for regression coefficients and associated odds ratios indicated that the occurrence of Siskiyou Mountains salamanders was positively associated with rocky soils and Pacific madrone (Abutus menziesii) and negatively associated with elevation and white fir (Abies concolor); these associations were consistent across 3 spatial scales. The occurrence of this species also was positively associated with hardwood density at the medium spatial scale. Odds ratios projected that a 10% decrease in white fir abundance would increase the odds of salamander occurrence 3.02–4.47 times, depending on spatial scale. We selected the model with rocky soils, white fir, and Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana) as the best model across 3 spatial scales and created habitat suitability maps for Siskiyou Mountains salamanders by projecting habitat suitability scores across the landscape. Our habitat suitability models and maps are applicable to selection of priority conservation areas for Siskiyou Mountains salamanders, and our approach can be easily adapted to conservation of other rare species in any geographical location.     

Importance of local habitat conditions and past and present habitat connectivity for the species richness of grassland plants and butterflies in power line clearings

Agricultural intensification has caused drastic declines in the area and species richness of semi-natural grasslands across Europe. Novel habitats, such as power line clearings, provide alternative habitats and niches for grassland species, and might therefore mitigate these declines. However, it is not fully understood which environmental factors determine the occurrence of grassland species in the clearings. Identifying the most important drivers for grassland species occurrence would help understand the value of the clearings for grassland conservation and target enhanced management into clearings with most potential as grassland habitat. We studied the effects of local environmental conditions, and past and present connectivity to semi-natural grasslands, on the species richness of grassland plants and butterflies in 43 power line clearings in Finland. The results of generalized linear models and hierarchical partitioning showed that increasing time since clear-cut and amount of clearing residue decreased the species richness of both species groups, while the cover of mesic habitats increased it. However, the two species groups showed also divergent responses. Present-day local environmental conditions appeared to be the sole driver of grassland butterfly species richness, whereas the richness of grassland plants was related both to current conditions and historical connectivity to grasslands in 1870–1880s. This suggests the presence of an extinction debt in the studied grassland plant communities, emphasizing the need for enhanced management to increase suitable grassland habitat in the clearings. This would diminish the potential future losses of grassland plant species in the clearings and create valuable habitat for grassland butterflies as well.     

Can occupancy patterns be used to predict distributions in widely separated geographic regions?

Occupancy models, that describe the presence and absence patterns of a species in a given area, are increasingly being used to predict the occurrence of the species in unsurveyed sites, as an aid to conservation planning. In this paper, we consider whether conclusions about local distributions derived from one landscape can be extrapolated to others. We found that habitat patchiness influenced the distribution and abundance of the host-specific moth Wheeleria spilodactylus in a similar way in two landscapes widely separated geographically. In both geographic regions, the spatial location (positive effect of connectivity), and quantity of resource (positive effect of host plant density) increased the likelihood that the moth would be present, consistent with the expectations of metapopulation dynamics. Though some biological attributes of the species appeared to be slightly different, including population density and the timing of the life cycle (phenology), occupancy patterns in one landscape accurately predict occupancy in the other landscape. Our results suggest that it maybe possible to make predictions from one landscape to another, even when the landscapes are widely separated.     

Factors influencing epiphytic bryophyte and lichen species richness at different spatial scales in managed temperate forests

The effect of management related factors on species richness of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens was studied in managed deciduous-coniferous mixed forests in Western-Hungary. At the stand level, the potential explanatory variables were tree species composition, stand structure, microclimate and light conditions, landscape and historical variables; while at tree level host tree species, tree size and light were studied. Species richness of the two epiphyte groups was positively correlated. Both for lichen and bryophyte plot level richness, the composition and diversity of tree species and the abundance of shrub layer were the most influential positive factors. Besides, for bryophytes the presence of large trees, while for lichens amount and heterogeneity of light were important. Tree level richness was mainly determined by host tree species for both groups. For bryophytes oaks, while for lichens oaks and hornbeam turned out the most favourable hosts. Tree size generally increased tree level species richness, except on pine for bryophytes and on hornbeam for lichens. The key variables for epiphytic diversity of the region were directly influenced by recent forest management; historical and landscape variables were not influential. Forest management oriented to the conservation of epiphytes should focus on: (i) the maintenance of tree species diversity in mixed stands; (ii) increment the proportion of deciduous trees (mainly oaks); (iii) conserving large trees within the stands; (iv) providing the presence of shrub and regeneration layer; (v) creating heterogeneous light conditions. For these purposes tree selection and selective cutting management seem more appropriate than shelterwood system.     

A comparison of patch connectivity measures using data on invertebrates in hollow oaks

This study aimed at comparing six patch connectivity measures by fitting them to field data. We used occupancy data for eight beetle and two pseudoscorpion species from 281 hollow oaks in southeast Sweden. Species occupancy was modelled in relation to tree characteristics and one measure of patch connectivity at a time. For each connectivity measure we searched for the spatial scale that generated the best fit to field data. Connectivity measures that only include occupied patches provided better model fits than those that include all patches. When occupancy data are absent for surrounding habitat patches, information that reflects occurrence probabilities can be included in the connectivity measure. However, in this study incorporation of such information resulted in only a slight improvement of model fit. A frequently used connectivity measure based on the negative exponential function was relatively poor in explaining species’ occurrence; for eight species out of nine a buffer measure was better. A better fit was obtained when the negative exponential function was modified to take into account that habitat patches may “compete” for the immigrants. The spatial scale with the best fit tended to be larger when we used connectivity measures in which dispersal sources are identified with lower precision. Thus, the outcomes from different multiple‐scale studies are not directly comparable if the density of dispersal sources is not measured in the same way. Overall we conclude that buffer measures are useful, as they give good predictions and are easy to understand and use. If a biologically more realistic measure is needed, one that up‐weights the closest patches should be used. Finally, the possibility that habitat patches may compete with each other for immigrants should be considered when selecting a connectivity measure.     

Predicting impacts of climate change on habitat connectivity of Kalopanax septemlobus in South Korea

Understanding the drivers of habitat distribution patterns and assessing habitat connectivity are crucial for conservation in the face of climate change. In this study, we examined a sparsely distributed tree species, Kalopanax septemlobus (Araliaceae), which has been heavily disturbed by human use in temperate forests of South Korea. We used maximum entropy distribution modeling (MaxEnt) to identify the climatic and topographic factors driving the distribution of the species. Then, we constructed habitat models under current and projected climate conditions for the year 2050 and evaluated changes in the extent and connectivity of the K. septemlobus habitat. Annual mean temperature and terrain slope were the two most important predictors of species distribution. Our models predicted the range shift of K. septemlobus toward higher elevations under medium-low and high emissions scenarios for 2050, with dramatic reductions in suitable habitat (51% and 85%, respectively). In addition, connectivity analysis indicated that climate change is expected to reduce future levels of habitat connectivity. Even under the Representative Construction Pathway (RCP) 4.5 medium-low warming scenario, the projected climate conditions will decrease habitat connectivity by 78%. Overall, suitable habitats for K. septemlobus populations will likely become more isolated depending on the severity of global warming. The approach presented here can be used to efficiently assess species and habitat vulnerability to climate change.     

Spontaneous restoration of epiphytic lichen biota in managed forests planted on habitats typical for temperate deciduous forest

The study examines the changes of epiphytic lichen diversity in differently aged stands developing after clear cutting and pine planting on fertile habitats typical for deciduous forests. The study was conducted within one large complex consisting of pine, mixed pine-hornbeam and typical old oak-linden-hornbeam forests in northern Poland. Epiphytic lichens were recorded in 50 study plots randomly selected within 5 forest stand classes of a different structure and age, ranging from 80 to over 220 years. Altogether 143 lichen species were recorded, of which only 41 were entirely nonspecific, and were occurring in all the studied forest stand classes. Significant differences in lichen species richness between stand classes were found and the number of species increases with the forest age. Lichen species composition also differs and its changes progress towards restoration of lichen biota typical for deciduous forest consistent with the habitat. The age of the forest has the most significant effect on the biodiversity of lichen biota. Microhabitat space provided by oaks is highly desirable since it greatly enriches lichen biota in forests. Phorophyte specificity of particular lichens were assessed. Hornbeam and oak have the greatest number of species mostly confined to them and constitute a main refuge for lichens with a high conservation value. The changes of lichen biota are basically parallel with the changes of the forest stand structure. The selection of some parts within managed pine forests that should not be assigned for cutting in the future can be a simple procedure which helps to restore and preserve forest biodiversity.