A mutation, tl2, in pea (Pisum sativum L.) affects leaf development only in the heterozygous state

After gamma irradiation of pea seeds, a mutation designated as tendril-less2 (tl2) was induced. In the heterozygous state, it transforms tendrils into very narrow leaflets that resemble the heterozygote phenotype of the classic tl mutation. The tendrils of the double heterozygote tl2/+, tl/+ are converted into oval leaflets. Unlike tl, the novel mutation in the homozygous state does not affect tendrils. The leaf phenotype of homozygotes tl2/tl2 and Tl2/Tl2 do not differ in the tl/+ background. However, the anthocyanin pigmentation is strongly suppressed in petals of tl2/tl2 plants. Some hypotheses to explain the unusual phenotypic manifestation of tl2 are suggested.     

A GENETIC SYNDROME AFFECTING LEAF DEVELOPMENT IN PISUM

A recessive foliage mutant of Pisum, designated ‘sinuate leaf’ (sil), was found to have two distinct forms of expression, depending on the background genotype. In an af/af background—wherein leaflets are converted to tendrils—sil/sil plants had adventitious tendrils arising from clefts in the distal portion of the stipule. These adventitious tendrils were morphologically modified, just as were the true tendrils on the same plant, by different allelic combinations at the tl locus. In the standard Af background, sil/sil plants had neither incised stipules nor adventitious tendrils, although they did have undulated and somewhat distorted leaflets and stipules. Because mutant expression was variable in an Af background, classification of segregating populations was uncertain. This uncertainty was removed by taking advantange of pleiotropic effects exerted by sil in the presence of one of the wax mutants, wlo, wb, or wsp. Homozygous wlo plants ordinarily have uniformly waxy stipule surfaces, but when the plants were also homozygous for sil the stipule tips were waxless. Conversely, wb/wb and wsp/wsp plants ordinarily have uniformly waxless stipules, but when wb/wb or wsp/wsp plants were also homozygous recessive for sil the stipule tips were waxy. However, sil had no observable effects of any kind on the stipule tips of plants with stipules reduced in size by the action of st/st. By their individual and combined effects, the foliage mutants used in this study revealed developmental relationships among leaf parts not otherwise evident in non-mutant plants.     

Tendril Coiling in Grapevine: Jasmonates and a New Role for GABA?

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., Vitaceae) belongs to the genus Vitis, and is characterized as a vine due to the presence of tendrils, which are located opposite to leaves. Tendrils are thigmo-responsive organs, able to carry out delicate mechanosensory responses upon touch and related stimuli. These organs are an adaptation of the plant to climb with the help of support to higher places and finally remain at a position with favorable light quality. In previous studies on Bryonia dioica (Cucurbitaceae), phytohormones of the jasmonate class were identified as the endogenous hormone signals to initiate coiling of the tendrils. Strikingly, this is still the only example for jasmonate-induced tendril coiling. In grapevine, three compounds (12-oxo-phytodienoic acid, jasmonic acid (JA), and JA isoleucine conjugate) of the jasmonate class were found at higher concentrations in non-coiled tendrils when compared with coiled ones. Upon treatment with phytohormones, we could confirm the activity of jasmonates on tendril coiling in grapevine. However, not jasmonates but a non-proteinogenic amino acid, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), was detected to accumulate in grapevine tendrils at significantly higher levels than in all other tissues, independent of their coiling status. For GABA we detected a significant, transient positive effect on tendril coiling. Use of a GABA synthesis blocker, 3-mercaptopropionic acid, caused reduced GABA- but not JA-induced coiling scores. No additive effect of JA plus GABA was detectable on the tendrils’ coiling score. Thus, for grapevine, our data demonstrate a strong activity of jasmonates in tendril coiling induction even without mechanical stimuli and, furthermore, the data also suggest that GABA can independently promote tendril coiling.

     

Interaktionen von Auxin und Äthylen bei der thigmotropen Bewegung der Ranken von Cucumis sativus

Summary Coiling of intact or excised cucumber (Cucumis sativus) tendrils can be induced by IAA or ethylene. The velocity of coiling in different regions of the tendrils correlates with the capacity for auxin-stimulated ethylene synthesis. Ethylene (Ethephon) induces an increase in membrane permeability of tendrils, and as a result the efflux of substances previously taken up (glucose) is stimulated. It is assumed that this may contribute to the contraction of the ventral side of the tendril. The excretion of glucose after ethylene treatment can be reduced by Ca²⁺, and calcium also inhibits coiling of tendrils following incubation in ethephon solution. Auxin stimulated ethylene synthesis in the ventral half of the tendril is several times higher than in the dorsal half and it is hypothesized that this may be a cause for the different reactions of the two sides of a tendril following a mechanical stimulus.

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Abkürzungen: IAA=Indol-3-essigsäure; ABA=Abscisinsäure     

Characterization of Hormonal Complex in Pea Phenotypes Differing in Leaf Morphology

Two genotypes of the pea (Pisum sativum L.) with wild-type leaves (variety Orlovchanin, Af/Af genotype) and the afila morphotype (aphyllous variety Nord, af/af genotype) were compared in terms of growth performance and hormonal characteristics of different leaf parts and the whole plant. The replacement of leaflets by tendrils in the afila variety led to a reduction in total dry weight and the area of photosynthesizing surfaces. The loss of leaflets was partly compensated for by rapid expansion of stipules at early stages of plant development and by the hypertrophy of tendrils at later stages. The excessive development of stipules in afila plants was paralleled by the increase in IAA and cytokinin level in their tissues. The hypertrophied development of tendrils and chlorophyll accumulation in tendrils of afila plants was correlated with a high IAA and cytokinin content at a low ABA background level. The elevated content of ABA in tissues of wild-type plants was associated with the preferential development of leaflets and a larger transpiratory surface compared with those in the afila form. It is assumed that this feature ensures the turgescence of wild-type plants. The possible involvement of phytohormones in growth and morphogenesis of pea mutants is discussed.     

Sink to Source Transition in Tendrils of a Semileafless Mutant, Pisum sativum cv Curly

Sink to source transition parallels loss of thigmotropic capacity in tendrils of a semileafless mutant, Pisum sativum cv Curly. Macroscopic tendril development is subdivided based on thigmotropic capacity. Stage I is the elongation stage and, although the rate of photosynthesis is similar to that of stage II and III tendrils, dark respiration rates are higher in stage I. During stage II, tendrils are thigmotropic and act as a sink. Even though stage II tendrils have CO₂ exchange characteristics similar to those of stage III tendrils, which are coiled, our fluorescein, ¹⁴C-partitioning, and ¹¹C-translocation experiments suggest that stage I and II tendrils do not export carbon. Only stage III tendrils act as sources of newly fixed carbon. Export from them is blocked by cold, heat girdling of the petiole, or anoxia treatment of the tendrils. A late stage II tendril complex, in which coiling is occurring, may be exporting photoassimilates; however, this phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that the pea leaf is a compound structure and there may be one or more stage III tendrils, no longer thigmotropic, within the tendril complex. Photosynthetic maturity in pea tendrils occurs at stage III and is characterized by the ability of these tendrils to export photoassimilates.     

Egg capsules of the dusky catshark Bythaelurus canescens (Carcharhiniformes,Scyliorhinidae) from the south‐eastern Pacific Ocean

The external morphology of the egg capsule of Bythaelurus canescens and its fixation to the substratum are described. Bythaelurus canescens egg capsules are typically vase‐shaped, dorso‐ventrally flattened, pale yellow in colour when fresh and covered by 12–15 longitudinal ridges. The anterior border of the capsule is straight, whereas the posterior border is semicircular. Two horns bearing long, coiled tendrils arise from the anterior and posterior ends of the capsule. The presence of longitudinal ridges and long coiled tendrils at both anterior and posterior ends of the capsule readily distinguish these egg capsules from those of other chondrichthyans occurring in the south‐east Pacific Ocean.     

MORPHO-HISTOGENIC STUDIES ON TENDRILS OF VITACEAE

The origin and development of the tendrils were studied in 16 species of the Vitaceae: Ampelopsis (7 sp.), Parthenocissus (4 sp.), Vitis (3 sp.), and Tetrastigma (1 sp.). Two types of arrangement of leaf and tendril occur: (a) two successive nodes have leaf-opposed tendrils alternating with each other, followed by a third node, with a leaf unopposed by the tendril; (b) all the nodes have leaf-opposed tendrils. The tendril, like a leaf, is a lateral product of the apical meristem of the shoot. A leaf opposite a tendril is initiated earlier than the tendril. Anticlinal and periclinal divisions in the second and/or third layer of the peripheral meristem of the shoot apex initiate the tendril. The procambium of the tendril first appears towards its abaxial side. Vascularization of the tendril is independent of the axillary bud of the next node below. The positional relationship of the nodal plate vis-à-vis the leaf-opposed tendril shows that the tendril and the leaf belong to the same node. Histological evidence does not show the uplifting of the tendril to the next node above during internodal differentiation. Ontogenetic and morphologic correlation and homology between the inflorescence and the tendril do not substantiate that the tendril in the Vitaceae is an organ sui generis. All available evidence indicates that the tendril is an extra-axillary lateral branch.     

Thigmonastic Coiling of Tendrils of Passiflora quadrangularis is Not Caused by Lateral Redistribution of Auxin

The effect of thigmotropic stimuli on the distribution of exogenously applied indoleacetic acid in intact tendrils of Passiflora quadrangularis L. has been investigated. Tips of tendrils were dipped in solutions of IAA-2-¹⁴C for 12 h and subsequently stimulated by exposure to carbon dioxide or mechanically by rubbing. The content of ¹⁴C in dorsal and ventral halves was analysed before, during and after coiling. Our experiments failed to detect any difference from the initial dorsal: ventral ratio of ¹⁴C (44:56) as a possible consequence of stimulus or of coiling. This suggests that thigmotropic curvature is not dependent on lateral movement of auxin, supporting a theory of a built-in asymmetrical reaction of the tissues to equal amounts of auxin and CO₂, respectively.     

Reciprocal influence of ethylene and gibberellins on response-gene expression in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis>

A cortical band of fiber cells originate de novo in tendrils of redvine [Brunnichia ovata (Walt.) Shiners] when these convert from straight, supple young filaments to stiffened coiled structures in response to touch stimulation. We have analyzed the cell walls of these fibers by in situ localization techniques to determine their composition and possible role(s) in the coiling process. The fiber cell wall consists of a primary cell wall and two lignified secondary wall layers (S₁ and S₂) and a less lignified gelatinous (G) layer proximal to the plasmalemma. Compositionally, the fibers are sharply distinct from surrounding parenchyma as determined by antibody and affinity probes. The fiber cell walls are highly enriched in cellulose, callose and xylan but contain no homogalacturonan, either esterified or de-esterified. Rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) epitopes are not detected in the S layers, although they are in both the gelatinous layer and primary wall, indicating a further restriction of RG-I in the fiber cells. Lignin is concentrated in the secondary wall layers of the fiber and the compound middle lamellae/primary cell wall but is absent from the gelatinous layer. Our observations indicate that these fibers play a central role in tendril function, not only in stabilizing its final shape after coiling but also generating the tensile strength responsible for the coiling. This theory is further substantiated by the absence of gelatinous layers in the fibers of the rare tendrils that fail to coil. These data indicate that gelatinous-type fibers are responsible for the coiling of redvine tendrils and a number of other tendrils and vines.     

Auxin–cytokinin and auxin–gibberellin interactions during morphogenesis of the compound leaves of pea (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pisum sativum</Emphasis>)

A number of mutations that alter the form of the compound leaf in pea (Pisum sativum) has proven useful in elucidating the role that auxin might play in pea leaf development. The goals of this study were to determine if auxin application can rescue any of the pea leaf mutants and if gibberellic acid (GA) plays a role in leaf morphogenesis in pea. A tissue culture system was used to determine the effects of various auxins, GA or a GA biosynethesis inhibitor (paclobutrazol) on leaf development. The GA mutant, nana1 (na1) was analyzed. The uni-tac mutant was rescued by auxin and GA and rescue involved both a conversion of the terminal leaflet into a tendril and an addition of a pair of lateral tendrils. This rescue required the presence of cytokinin. The auxins tested varied in their effectiveness, although methyl-IAA worked best. The terminal tendrils of wildtype plantlets grown on paclobutrazol were converted into leaflets, stubs or were aborted. The number of lateral pinna pairs produced was reduced and leaf initiation was impaired. These abnormalities resembled those caused by auxin transport inhibitors and phenocopy the uni mutants. The na1 mutant shared some morphological features with the uni mutants; including, flowering late and producing leaves with fewer lateral pinna pairs. These results show that both auxin and GA play similar and significant roles in pea leaf development. Pea leaf morphogenesis might involve auxin regulation of GA biosynthesis and GA regulation of Uni expression.     

Methyljasmonate and α-linolenic acid are potent inducers of tendril coiling

A coiling-inducing factor was isolated from tendrils of Bryonia dioica Jacq. and identified by infrared, ¹H-, ¹³C-nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry as -linolenic acid. When applied to detached tendrils, exogenous -linolenic acid, but not linoleic acid or oleic acid, induced tendril coiling. Further investigations showed that metabolites of -linolenic acid, jasmonic acid and, even more so, methyljasmonate, are highly effective inducers of tendril coiling in B. dioica. Methyljasmonate was most active when administered by air and, in atmospheric concentrations as low as 40–80 nM, induced a full free-coiling response with kinetics similar to mechanical stimulation. Even atmospheric levels as low as 4–5 nM methyljasmonate were still found to be significantly active. Methyljasmonate could be one of the endogenous chemical signals produced in mechanically stimulated parts of a tendril and, being highly volatile, act as a diffusible gaseous mediator spreading through the intracellular spaces to trigger free coiling of tendrils.Abbreviations EI-MS electron impact-mass spectrometry - HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography - IAA indole-3-acetic acid - NMR nuclear magnetic resonance - TFA trifluoroacetic acid We are indebted to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn and the Fonds der Chemischen Industrie, Frankfurt (literature provision) for their support and to Dr. C. Brückner, Halle, for jasmonic-acid determinations.     

Physiological Studies on Pea Tendrils. III. ATPase Activity and Contractility Associated with Coiling

Extracts of the tendrils of Pisum sativum, Var. Alaska, exhibit adenosine triphosphatase activity which is inversely proportional to the amount the tendrils have coiled. The specific viscosity of the extract decreases when ATP is added. This evidence indicates a possible role of a contractile adenosine triphosphatase in coiling.     

LEAF DEVELOPMENT IN DOXANTHA UNGUIS-CATI (BIGNONIACEAE)

Leaf structure in Doxantha unguis-cati is polymorphic. The usual mature compound leaf is composed of two lanceolate leaflets and a terminal tripartite spine-tendril. Leaf primordia are initiated simultaneously in pairs on opposite flanks of the shoot apical meristem by periclinal cell divisions in the third subsurface layer of the peripheral flank meristem. Two leaflet primordia are the first lateral appendages of the compound leaf. Initiation of these leaflet primordia occurs on the adaxial side of a compound leaf primordium 63–70 μm long. Lamina formation is initiated at the base of a leaflet primordium 70–90 μm long and continues acropetally. Mesophyll differentiation occurs in later stages of development of leaflets. The second pair of lateral appendages of the leaf primordium differentiate as prongs of the tendril. Initiation of the second pair of lateral appendages occurs on the adaxial side of a primordium approximately 168 μm long. Acropetal procambialization and vacuolation of cells extend to the apex of tendrils about 112 μm long, restricting the tendril meristem to the adaxial side of the primordium and resulting in curvature of the tendril. The tendril meristem is gradually limited to a more basipetal position as elongation of apical cells continues. Initiatory divisions and early ontogenetic stages of leaflets and tendrils are similar. Their ontogeny differs when the lateral primordia are approximately 70 μm long. Marginal and submarginal initials differentiate within leaflets but not in tendrils. Apical growth of tendrils ceases very early in ontogeny as compared with leaflets.     

Flowering in Vitis: Conversion of tendrils into inflorescences and bunches of grapes

Inflorescences and fruits with viable seeds were produced in place of tendrils in plants of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Muscat of Alexandria and in a staminate hybrid grapevine (Vitis vinifera x V. rupestris Scheele) following repeated applications of 10–20 l of 50–200 M 6-(benzylamino)-9-(2-tetrahydropyranyl)-9H-purine (PBA) to apices. Young leaves, shoot tips and axillary buds were removed before the PBA treatments were commenced. The number and weight of berries produced by inflorescences derived from tendrils was closely correlated with the number and area of leaves retained. When application of PBA was continued after floral initiation there was formation of fused flowers and cleistogamous pollination.     

Increased availability of extrafloral nectar reduces herbivory in Lima bean plants (Phaseolus lunatus, Fabaceae)

Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) features two inducible indirect defences to protect itself against herbivores. Besides the emission of plant volatiles, extrafloral nectar is secreted to attract carnivorous arthropods to herbivore-damaged plants. The activation of both putative defences efficiently protects Lima beans from leaf damage. In a field experiment in Mexico, we studied whether extrafloral nectar alone can benefit the Lima bean under natural conditions. An artificial blend mimicking natural nectar both qualitatively and quantitatively was repeatedly applied to Lima bean tendrils. Ants, wasps and flies were significantly more abundant on treated tendrils than on untreated controls already after 1 week (i.e. after two treatment applications). Sticky traps were used to assess the functional groups of flying insects attracted to the Lima beans. After 24 h, 71% of all trapped flies and 98% of all wasps belonged to families comprising either parasitoid or predatory species. This observation suggests that also some of the flying visitors have played a role as putative defenders of Lima beans. Most of the trapped flies belonged to the families Dolichopodidae and Phoridae (each ca. one third of all individuals). Two thirds of the wasps belonged to Chalcidoidea (68%). All ant species that had been collected manually belonged to generalist genera with Camponotus novogranadensis and Cephalotes minutus being most regularly encountered on study tendrils. An additional experiment, where both ‘nectar’ and ‘control’ tendrils were treated with artificial nectar, revealed that ants responded with an increased abundance on tendrils that had experienced the ‘nectar’ treatment before.After 25 days, the treated tendrils showed a significantly reduced herbivory as compared to controls. The mere presence of increased amounts of extrafloral nectar thus can benefit the Lima bean under natural conditions.

Zusammenfassung

Die Limabohne (Phaseolus lunatus) verfügt über zwei induzierbare, indirekte Verteidigungsformen zur Abwehr von Herbivoren. Neben der Emission volatiler Verbindungen ist die Limabohne zusätzlich dazu in der Lage, extrafloralen Nektar zu sezernieren. Beides dient der Anlockung von Fraßfeinden zu den von Herbivoren befallenen Pflanzen. In einem Freilandexperiment in Mexiko wurde untersucht, ob die Limabohne unter natürlichen Bedingungen von der Sekretion extrafloralen Nektars profitiert. Hierzu wurde ein künstliches Nektargemisch wiederholt auf Limabohnenranken aufgetragen, welches natürlichen Nektar quantitativ und qualitativ imitierte. Bereits nach einer Woche (d.h. nach zwei Behandlungen) war die Abundanz von Ameisen, Fliegen und Wespen auf behandelten Ranken signifikant höher als auf unbehandelten Kontrollranken. Zur Erfassung der zur Limabohne angelockten fliegender Insekten sowie deren Zugehörigkeit zu funktionellen Gruppen wurden die Versuchsranken mit Klebefallen bestückt. Mehr als zwei Drittel der nach 24 h gefangenen Fliegen und 98% aller Wespen gehörten parasitisch oder räuberisch lebenden Fliegen- bzw. Wespen-Familien an. Diese Beobachtung legt nahe, dass nicht nur Ameisen, sondern auch einige der gefangenen fliegenden Besucher eine Rolle als potentielle Verteidiger der Limabohne gespielt haben könnten. Von den gefangen Fliegen gehörten die meisten den Familien Dolichopodidae und Phoridae (je ca. ein Drittel aller gefangenen Individuen) an, wogegen die Chalcidoidea zwei Drittel (68%) der gefangenen Wespen ausmachten. Unter den durch Handaufsammlung gefangenen Ameisen gehörten Camponotus novogranadensis und Cephalotes minutus zu den am häufigsten auf behandelten Ranken angetroffen Arten. Ein zusätzliches Experiment, in dem das künstliche Nektargemisch sowohl auf ‘Nektar’- als auch auf ‘Kontroll’-Ranken aufgebracht wurde, ergab, dass die Ameisen mit einer erhöhten Abundanz auf solchen Ranken reagierten, die bereits vorher die, Nektar’-Behandlung erfahren hatten.Nach 25 Tagen zeigten behandelte Ranken signifikant weniger Blattfraß im Vergleich zu unbehandelten Kontrollranken. Die bloße Erhöhung der Menge an extrafloralem Nektar reichte offensichtlich dazu aus, unter natürlichen Bedingungen wachsenden Limabohnen einen Vorteil zu verschaffen.     

Leaf Morphology,Pigment Complex,and Productivity in Wild-Type and afila Pea Genotypes

The effects of genetically determined changes in leaf morphology on the characteristics of growth, pigment complex, and productivity were studied in pea plants (Pisum sativum L.). The homeotic afila(af) mutation, which transformed leaflets into tendrils, decreased the leaf area and the chlorophyll (Chl) content per plant (CCP) in the af/af plants 1.5-fold as compared to the wild type (Af/Af). The loss of leaflets in the af/af plants was partly recompensed by expansion of the tendrils and stipules and by extra accumulation of Chl (a + b). The mutation did not affect Chl (a + b) that fell to the share of light-harvesting complexes (LHC) and the ratio of Chl a/b (representing the relative distribution of chlorophylls between LHC and the reaction centers); neither it affected the quantum efficiency of the primary charge separation (F _v/F _m). The diminished assimilating area (AA) in the af/af plants at the preflowering period did not reduce the final biomass and grain yield. The measurement of the area shaded by plants in the glasshouse experiments and the direct assessment of the vertical profile of solar radiation in the field stand canopies demonstrated that this phenomenon was in particular related to the fact that, in the af/af plants, the solar radiation was available to the apical and subapical leaves (as in the wild-type plants) and also to the lower metamers. As a result, the actively functioning AA expanded, and the photoassimilating potential of the af/af plants was enhanced. Our data presume the direct relationship between plant production and CCP.     

Plant DNA-damage repair/toleration 100 protein repairs UV-B-induced DNA damage

We report the characterization of VvDRT100-L, a grape DNA-damage repair/toleration 100 protein. VvDRT100-L has nine leucine-rich repeats and belongs to the plant DRT100 protein family. VvDRT100-L is expressed abundantly in green organs of grapevines, including tendrils, leaves, and green berry skins. The overexpression of VvDRT100-L in Arabidopsis plants decreased the number of abasic sites and the frequency of DNA single-strand breaks in the DNA damaged by UV-B irradiation, whereas UV-B irradiation markedly increased the number of abasic sites and the frequency of DNA single-strand breaks in T-DNA insertion mutant drt100 plants. VvDRT100-L-overexpressing plants remained viable and noticeably healthy under lethal UV doses, suggesting that VvDRT100-L may enhance UV tolerance in plant. Taken together, we concluded that VvDRT100-L might play an important role in the repair and toleration of UV-B-induced DNA damage. These findings would help us better understand how plants acquire UV stress acclimation, tolerance and DNA repair.     

Carbon Dioxide Photoassimilation in Normal-leaved and Mutant Forms of Pisum sativum L.

The reproducible steady-state carbon dioxide (CO₂) photoassimilationpotentials of three mutants and a normal form of pea (Pisumsativum L.) have been compared. The three mutants studied differed markedly in foliar morphology:genotype af af Tl Tl had leaflets converted to tendrils; AfAf tl tl had tendrils converted to leaflets; af af tl tl hadrelatively minute leaflets on a branched petiole. Interest layprimarily in the phenotype with only tendrils since it provideda potential means of reducing the volume of haulm that has tobe rapidly processed in the case of vining peas, and dried inthe case of harvest peas. These mutants had been derived from relatively unimproved cultivars.Before completion of the lengthy backcrossing required to makea full assessment of the value of such mutants an interim studyusing infra red gas analysis indicated that, in terms of CO₂ photoassimilation perunit area of youngest expanded attached leaf of glasshouse-grownplants, the mutants were comparable to normal. The phenotypewith only tendrils was the least efficient of those assayedat utilizing light of an intensity below 100 J m² sec¹ (400–700nm), and on a unit dry-weight basis it was only 18 per centas efficient as a normal-leaved pea. The other mutants werecomparable to normal in this respect. Comparison of CO₂ photoassimilation of glasshouse-grown andfield-grown plants showed them to be similar though they differedin dry weight, transpiration, and dark respiration.