Occurrence of eggs and oocysts of intestinal parasites of pheasant (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Phasianus colchicus</Emphasis>) in droppings collected in differently managed protected areas of Tuscany (Italy)

The releasing of farm-reared pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is a very common practice in order to sustain high hunting pressures. However farm-reared birds may be carriers of parasites and diseases for the natural populations. We compared the parasite egg and oocyst prevalence and abundance of excretions found in faecal droppings collected in 13 different protected areas of Tuscany: seven areas where farm-reared pheasants are released every year to increase the reproduction and dispersion of the wild population (restocking areas) and in six areas where the production of pheasants is guaranteed only by the wild population (wild areas). Eimeria spp. oocysts were found in 33 of 129 (25.6%) samples collected in wild areas and in 59 of 119 (51.3%) of samples collected in restocking areas. Nematode eggs were found in 21 of 129 (16.3%) samples collected in wild areas and in 59 of 119 (49.6%) of samples collected in restocking areas. Significant differences were found for Capillaria spp. (31.9% of restocking areas vs. 9.3% of wild areas) and Syngamus spp. (10.1% of restocking areas vs. 3.1% of wild areas) but not for Heterakis or Ascaridia spp. (7.6% of restocking areas vs. 3.9% of wild areas). Parasitic excretion abundance was higher in the droppings collected in restocking areas compared to those collected in wild areas, but differences were significant only for Eimeria and Capillaria spp. In order to reduce the risk of spreading parasites and diseases, we suggest to interpose a strip (larger than the home range of the pheasants) where hunting is not forbidden between the restocking areas and the wild areas, and pheasant releases should not be allowed at least within a “pheasant home range distance” from the wild areas.     

Influence of keeping pheasants in captivity vs. nature on the biological value of meat and its use in human nutrition

The life of game birds (pheasants) in nature is coupled with a number of difficulties in all seasons of the year. This refers to finding food, breeding, laying eggs, raising the young, fleeing from their natural enemies and lack of protection from unfavorable climatic conditions. The pheasants that live in captivity--aviaries for pheasants--do not have such difficulties--they are fed regularly by quality feed for pheasants, they are protected from bad weather and natural enemies. Our research was aimed at determining the biological value of meat of pheasants grown in the two different settings--in captivity and in nature. The highest weight achieved wild pheasant males (1232.4 +/- 147.36 g). The differences between tested pheasant groups were statistically very high significant (P < 0.001). The differences between groups related to breast weight and tights with drumsticks weight were statistically very high significant (P < 0.001). Between breast parts (%) and legs parts (%) were notified very high (P < 0.001) i.e. high (P = 0.002) differences. The highest weight breast muscles and tights with drumsticks had wild pheasants (282.6 +/- 63.53 g i.e. 206.2 +/- 37.88g). Wilde pheasants had lower part (%) and lighter (g) skin with subcutaneous fatty tissue on breasts. Female pheasants cultivated on both ways had higher skin part (%) and subcutaneous fatty tissue in tights with drumsticks. Related to chemical composition of breast muscles is established statistically significant differences (P < 0.001 i.s. P = 0.040)) in part of Ca (%) and P (%). In wild pheasant tights with drumsticks muscles established statistically very significant (P < 0.001) higher part of moisture, protein and Ca, i.e. statistically very high significant (P < 0.001) lower part of fat and energetic value. Research results indicate that the quality of meat of pheasants grown in nature has higher biological value than the meat of pheasants kept in aviaries, which means it has advantages in human nutrition.     

Metagenomics analysis of the fecal microbiota in Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and Green pheasants (Phasianus versicolor) using next generation sequencing

Pheasant reintroduction and conservation efforts have been in place in Pakistan since the 1980 s, yet there is still a scarcity of data on pheasant microbiome and zoonosis. Instead of growing vast numbers of bacteria in the laboratory, to investigate the fecal microbiome, pheasants (green and ring neck pheasant) were analyzed using 16S rRNA metagenomics and using IonS5TMXL sequencing from two flocks more than 10 birds. Operational taxonomic unit (OTU) cluster analysis and phylogenetic tree analysis was performed using Mothur software against the SSUrRNA database of SILVA and the MUSCLE (Version 3.8.31) software. Results of the analysis showed that firmicutes were the most abundant phylum among the top ten phyla, in both pheasant species, followed by other phyla such as actinobacteria and proteobacteria in ring necked pheasant and bacteroidetes in green necked pheasant. Bacillus was the most relatively abundant genus in both pheasants followed by Oceanobacillus and Teribacillus for ring necked pheasant and Lactobacillus for green necked pheasant. Because of their well-known beneficial characteristics, these genus warrants special attention. Bird droppings comprise germs from the urinary system, gut, and reproductive sites, making it difficult to research each anatomical site at the same time. We conclude that metagenomic analysis and classification provides baseline information of the pheasant fecal microbiome that plays a role in disease and health.     

Do helminths increase the vulnerability of released pheasants to fox predation?

The success of ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) restocking in Asturias, northern Spain was assessed, and the role of parasites and predators in the mortality of released birds was studied. The experimental release of 56 radio-tagged pheasants showed that 98% of birds died within 12 days. As soon as 72 h after release, 67.5% of males and 55.0% of females were found dead. Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) killed 63% of the birds. The survival of those birds killed by foxes was lower than for birds which died due to other causes, and pheasants depositing eggs of the nematode Eucoleus contortus (Creplin, 1839) survived less than those apparently non-parasitized. No impact of the parasite on the pheasants' condition was found, but foxes preyed upon parasitized birds more than expected by random. The results suggest that: (i) the current pheasant releases in this area are unsuccessful and need to be improved; (ii) this is mainly due to intense predation by red foxes; and (iii) parasites could have some influence on the predation of released birds by foxes. However, the way parasites affect pheasant vulnerability remains unclear.     

Parasite-mediated competition between pheasant and grey partridge: a preliminary investigation

Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and grey partridges (Perdix perdix) were maintained together on land known to be contaminated with eggs of the caecal nematode Heterakis gallinarum to examine the hypothesis that this shared parasite has a greater impact on grey partridges than on pheasants. Since an inverse relationship between worm intensity and partridge body condition was detected, while no such relationship with pheasant body condition was observed, we were unable to refute this hypothesis. Furthermore, that there was no relationship between worm intensity after the exposure period and partridge body mass prior to the infection trial implies that infection caused the decrease in partridge body condition, and not vice versa. Data consistent with previous observations that H. gallinarum fecundity and survival is greater in pheasants than in partridges suggest that the bulk source of nematode infection to wild grey partridges is reared pheasants, and not the partridges themselves. This, and the differential impact on host body condition, supports the hypothesis that the spread of parasites from increasing numbers of released pheasants has contributed to the decline in wild grey partridge populations in the UK within the past 50 years. Received: 11 September 1998 / Accepted: 13 February 1999     

Isotopic fractionation in a large herbivorous insect, the Auckland tree weta

Determining diet and trophic position of species with stable isotopes requires appropriate trophic enrichment estimates between an animal and its potential foods. These estimates are particularly important for cryptic foragers where there is little comparative dietary information. Nonetheless, many trophic enrichment estimates are based on related taxa, without confirmation of accuracy using laboratory trials. We used stable isotope analysis to investigate diet and to resolve trophic relationships in a large endemic insect, the Auckland tree weta (Hemideina thoracica White). Comparisons of isotopes in plant foods fed to captive wetas with isotope ratios in their frass provided variable results, so frass isotope values had limited usefulness as a proxy indicator of trophic level. Isotopic values varied between different tissues, with trophic depletion of ¹⁵N highest in body fat and testes. Tissue fractionation was consistent in captive and wild caught wetas, and isotopic values were not significantly different between the two groups, suggesting that this weta species is primarily herbivorous. Whole-body values in captive wetas demonstrated trophic depletion (Δδ) for δ¹⁵N of about −0.77‰ and trophic enrichment of 4.28‰ for δ¹³C. These values differ from commonly estimated trophic enrichments for both insects and herbivores and indicate the importance of laboratory trials to determine trophic enrichment. Isotopic values for femur muscles from a number of local wild weta populations did not vary consistently with body weight or size, suggesting that juveniles eat the same foods as adults. Considerable variation among individuals within and between populations suggests that isotopic values are strongly influenced by food availability and individual foraging traits.     

Dung beetles in an avian-dominated island ecosystem: feeding and trophic ecology

Globally, dung beetles (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) are linked to many critical ecosystem processes involving the consumption and breakdown of mammal dung. Endemic New Zealand dung beetles (Canthonini) are an anomaly, occurring at high abundance and low diversity on an island archipelago historically lacking terrestrial mammals, except bats, and instead dominated by birds. Have New Zealand’s dung beetles evolved to specialise on bird dung or carrion, or have they become broad generalist feeders? We test dietary preferences by analysing nitrogen isotope ratios of wild dung beetles and by performing feeding behaviour observations of captive specimens. We also use nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes to determine if the dung beetle Saphobius edwardsi will consume marine-derived carrion. Nitrogen isotope ratios indicated trophic generalism in Saphobius dung beetles and this was supported by behavioural observations where a broad range of food resources were utilised. Alternative food resource use was further illustrated experimentally by nitrogen and carbon stable isotope signatures of S. edwardsi, where individuals provided with decomposed squid had δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values that had shifted toward values associated with marine diet. Our findings suggest that, in the absence of native mammal dung resources, New Zealand dung beetles have evolved a generalist diet of dung and carrion. This may include marine-derived resources, as provided by the seabird colonies present in New Zealand forests before the arrival of humans. This has probably enabled New Zealand dung beetles to persist in indigenous ecosystems despite the decline of native birds and the introduction of many mammal species.     

Genomic Consequences of Long-Term Population Decline in Brown Eared Pheasant

Population genetic theory and empirical evidence indicate that deleterious alleles can be purged in small populations. However, this viewpoint remains controversial. It is unclear whether natural selection is powerful enough to purge deleterious mutations when wild populations continue to decline. Pheasants are terrestrial birds facing a long-term risk of extinction as a result of anthropogenic perturbations and exploitation. Nevertheless, there are scant genomics resources available for conservation management and planning. Here, we analyzed comparative population genomic data for the three extant isolated populations of Brown eared pheasant (Crossoptilon mantchuricum) in China. We showed that C. mantchuricum has low genome-wide diversity and a contracting effective population size because of persistent declines over the past 100,000 years. We compared genome-wide variation in C. mantchuricum with that of its closely related sister species, the Blue eared pheasant (C. auritum) for which the conservation concern is low. There were detrimental genetic consequences across all C. mantchuricum genomes including extended runs of homozygous sequences, slow rates of linkage disequilibrium decay, excessive loss-of-function mutations, and loss of adaptive genetic diversity at the major histocompatibility complex region. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to perform a comprehensive conservation genomic analysis on this threatened pheasant species. Moreover, we demonstrated that natural selection may not suffice to purge deleterious mutations in wild populations undergoing long-term decline. The findings of this study could facilitate conservation planning for threatened species and help recover their population size.     

Why do many pheasants released in the UK die,and how can we best reduce their natural mortality?

Around 60% of pheasants released for shooting in the UK, an estimated 21 million birds, do not end up at their intended fate: being shot. This constitutes wastage, raising economic, environmental and ethical questions. We review what is known of the fates of released pheasants and consider why they do not directly contribute to the numbers harvested. We focus on four main explanations: predation, disease, starvation and dispersal, and highlight other important causes of mortality. For each explanation, we attempt to attribute levels of loss and identify timings or conditions when such losses may be heaviest. We review factors that exacerbate losses and methods available to mitigate them. Opportunities for amelioration may arise at all stages of the rearing and release of pheasants and involve changes to the conditions under which eggs are produced, the way young pheasants are reared or the management of the environment into which they are released. We found few studies investigating impacts of post-release management techniques on pheasant survival outside of the breeding season within a UK context. We found that a number of less commonly deployed practices focusing on early-life, pre-release management may improve survival. Given the scale of pheasant releasing in the UK, even improvements in survival of 1% would mean that ~?350,000 fewer birds die of natural causes. Complementing current post-release management with proven novel pre-release management interventions could reduce the number of pheasants required for release, whilst maintaining current shooting levels. Lowering release numbers would lower financial costs, benefit the environment and reduce some ethical concerns over the release and shooting of reared pheasants.     

Pheasant release in Great Britain: long-term and large-scale changes in the survival of a managed bird

The release of artificially reared pheasants is a widespread practice in Great Britain, used to increase the number of birds available for hunting. We examined the spatial and temporal patterns of release and shooting between 1960 and 2014 using data from a self-selected sample of 1195 sites. We examined changes in the efficiency of release, the contribution of birds that were not released that year to the numbers shot, and the form of these relationships through time. An annual estimate of the efficiency by which releasing increased the numbers shot was 50% over the period 1960–1990 declining rapidly to 35% by 2005 and reducing more slowly thereafter. There was no obvious regional pattern to this relationship. It has been hypothesised that the efficiency of releasing is lower on sites that release higher densities of pheasants; this study does not support this hypothesis. Annual variation in the density of birds shot in the absence of releasing (1960–1990) was closely correlated with a measure of annual gamebird chick survival. After this date, the relationship was no longer significant, consistent with a decline in wild pheasant stocks and coinciding with the declines in other farmland birds. We highlight increased fox abundance, genetic and behavioural changes arising from the rearing process, and increased shooting in late winter as possible causes for the observed decline in releasing efficiency. We consider the general increase in rearing, habitat changes, increased disease or losses to protected predators as unlikely to have been important causes of the changes in releasing efficiency. Pheasant releasing results in increased numbers for shooting, but has not prevented the wide-scale decline of wild pheasant numbers.     

Use of Stable Isotopes to Investigate Keratin Deposition in the Claw Tips of Ducks

Stable isotopes derived from the claws of birds could be used to determine the migratory origins of birds if the time periods represented in excised sections of claws were known. We investigated new keratin growth in the claws of adult female Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) by estimating the equilibration rates of stable isotopes (δ ¹³C, δ ¹⁵N, and δ ²H) from the breeding grounds into 1 mm claw tips. We sampled birds on their breeding ground through time and found that it took approximately 3–3.5 months for isotope values in most claw tips to equilibrate to isotope values that reflected those present in the environment on their breeding grounds. Results from this study suggest that isotopes equilibrate slowly into claw tips of Lesser Scaup, suggesting isotopes could potentially be used to determine the wintering grounds of birds. We suggest using controlled feeding experiments or longitudinal field investigations to understand claw growth and isotopic equilibration in claw tips. Such information would be valuable in ascertaining whether claw tips can be used in future studies to identify the migratory origins of birds.     

Temperature and diet affect carbon and nitrogen isotopes of fish muscle: can amino acid nitrogen isotopes explain effects?

Stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) are widely used in food-web studies to determine trophic positioning and diet sources. However in order to accurately interpret stable isotope data the effects of environmental variability and dietary composition on isotopic discrimination factors and tissue turnover rates must be validated. We tested the effects of temperature and diet on tissue turnover rates and discrimination of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in an omnivorous fish, black bream (Acanthopagrus butcheri). Fish were raised at 16 °C or 23 °C and fed either a fish-meal or vegetable feed to determine turnover rates in fish muscle tissue up to 42 days after exposure to experimental treatments. Temperature and diet affected bulk tissue δ¹⁵N turnover and discrimination factors, with increased turnover and smaller discrimination factors at warmer temperatures. Fish reared on the vegetable feed showed greater bulk tissue δ¹⁵N changes and larger discrimination factors than those reared on a fish-meal feed. Temperature and diet affected bulk tissue δ¹³C values, however the direction of effects among treatments changed. Analyses of δ¹⁵N values of individual amino acids found few significant changes over time or treatment effects, as there was large variation at the individual fish level. However glutamic acid, aspartic acid and leucine changed most over the experiment and results mirrored those of treatment effects in bulk δ¹⁵N tissue values. The results demonstrate that trophic discrimination for δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C can be significantly different than those typically used in food-web analyses, and effects of diet composition and temperature can be significant. Precision of compound-specific isotope analyses (0.9‰) was larger than our effect size for bulk δ¹⁵N diet effects (0.7‰), therefore future experimental work in this area will need to establish a large effect size in order to detect significant differences. Our results also suggest that compound-specific amino acid δ¹⁵N may be useful for determining essential and non-essential amino acids for different animals.     

Trophic Discrimination Factors of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes in Hair of Corn Fed Wild Boar

Stable isotope measurements are increasingly being used to gain insights into the nutritional ecology of many wildlife species and their role in ecosystem structure and function. Such studies require estimations of trophic discrimination factors (i.e. differences in the isotopic ratio between the consumer and its diet). Although trophic discrimination factors are tissue- and species- specific, researchers often rely on generalized, and fixed trophic discrimination factors that have not been experimentally derived. In this experimental study, captive wild boar (Sus scrofa) were fed a controlled diet of corn (Zea mays), a popular and increasingly dominant food source for wild boar in the Czech Republic and elsewhere in Europe, and trophic discrimination factors for stable carbon (Δ¹³C) and nitrogen (Δ¹⁵N) isotopes were determined from hair samples. The mean Δ¹³C and Δ¹⁵N in wild boar hair were –2.3 ‰ and +3.5 ‰, respectively. Also, in order to facilitate future derivations of isotopic measurements along wild boar hair, we calculated the average hair growth rate to be 1.1 mm d^-1. Our results serve as a baseline for interpreting isotopic patterns of free-ranging wild boar in current European agricultural landscapes. However, future research is needed in order to provide a broader understanding of the processes underlying the variation in trophic discrimination factors of carbon and nitrogen across of variety of diet types.     

Tissue Turnover Rates and Isotopic Trophic Discrimination Factors in the Endothermic Teleost,Pacific Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus orientalis)

Stable isotope analysis (SIA) of highly migratory marine pelagic animals can improve understanding of their migratory patterns and trophic ecology. However, accurate interpretation of isotopic analyses relies on knowledge of isotope turnover rates and tissue-diet isotope discrimination factors. Laboratory-derived turnover rates and discrimination factors have been difficult to obtain due to the challenges of maintaining these species in captivity. We conducted a study to determine tissue- (white muscle and liver) and isotope- (nitrogen and carbon) specific turnover rates and trophic discrimination factors (TDFs) using archived tissues from captive Pacific bluefin tuna (PBFT), Thunnus orientalis, 1–2914 days after a diet shift in captivity. Half-life values for ¹⁵N turnover in white muscle and liver were 167 and 86 days, and for ¹³C were 255 and 162 days, respectively. TDFs for white muscle and liver were 1.9 and 1.1‰ for δ ¹⁵N and 1.8 and 1.2‰ for δ ¹³C, respectively. Our results demonstrate that turnover of ¹⁵N and ¹³C in bluefin tuna tissues is well described by a single compartment first-order kinetics model. We report variability in turnover rates between tissue types and their isotope dynamics, and hypothesize that metabolic processes play a large role in turnover of nitrogen and carbon in PBFT white muscle and liver tissues. ¹⁵N in white muscle tissue showed the most predictable change with diet over time, suggesting that white muscle δ ¹⁵N data may provide the most reliable inferences for diet and migration studies using stable isotopes in wild fish. These results allow more accurate interpretation of field data and dramatically improve our ability to use stable isotope data from wild tunas to better understand their migration patterns and trophic ecology.     

Carbon and nitrogen discrimination factors for elasmobranch soft tissues based on a long-term controlled feeding study

The foraging ecology of elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) is difficult to study because species have spatially and temporally diverse diets. Many diet and habitat preference studies for mammals, birds, and teleosts use stable isotope analysis, but interpretations are limited for elasmobranch studies because taxon-specific isotope discrimination factors from a controlled experiment are unavailable. Trophic discrimination factors for plasma, red blood cells, and muscle were determined from an experiment with leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) fed a constant diet of squid over 1000?days. The ??¹³C values for shark tissues at equilibrium with the squid diet did not vary significantly among individuals, but plasma and red blood cell ??¹⁵N values differed significantly among individuals and sampling day. Individual variation of muscle ??¹⁵N averages was observed and likely related to growth. Overall, carbon and nitrogen discrimination factors corresponded to previous studies featuring high-protein diets and carnivorous taxa. The muscle-to-diet discrimination factors from the controlled feeding study were applied to blue sharks (Prionace glauca) and smooth hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna zygaena) caught offshore from Baja California, Mexico. This case study demonstrates the potential of stable isotope analysis to illuminate differences in foraging patterns between elasmobranch species.     

Predation of released pheasants <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phasianus colchicus</Emphasis> on lowland farmland in the UK and the effect of predator control

We present data accumulated over the last 25 years on predation of radio-tracked released pheasants. In studies of birds during the autumn/winter at six pheasant shoots with high-density releases managed by full-time gamekeepers, predation of released pheasants by foxes before the shooting season began (July–September) averaged 19.2?±?4.0% per site, and during the shooting season (October 1st–February 1st), a further 15.9?±?1.9% were predated. The range in 3-year average predation rates between sites before shooting began was 8.6 to 42.4%. At seven different sites during the spring and summer, between 20 and 71% of released or wild hens that survived the shooting season were predated, mainly by foxes, between mid-March and mid-July. Predation was significantly higher at sites with low-level predator control (59?±?4.7%) compared to those with high-level control (30?±?5.3%). At three of the four sites with low predator control between 5 and 22% of nest failures were caused by incubating hens being predated by foxes. Our data quantify for the first time highly variable predation rates of released pheasants before and during the winter shooting season which we suggest was influenced by a range of site and management factors. During the spring and summer, our data provide evidence that predation of adult hen pheasants as well as nest predation can suppress breeding success and that predator control can reduce these losses.     

Effect of nutritional condition on variation in δ13C and δ15N stable isotope values in Pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) fed different diets

Stable isotope analysis is frequently used to infer resource use in natural populations of fishes. Studies have examined factors, other than diet, that influence δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C including tissue-specific rates of equilibration and starvation. Most such studies completed under laboratory conditions tightly control food quantity and its isotopic composition, but it is also necessary to evaluate the influence of these factors under more natural conditions. Using pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) we evaluated whether restricted rations below minimum daily requirements affects tissue equilibration to a change in diet by holding fish on two treatments that often reflect divergent resource use in natural populations (pelagic zooplankton or littoral macroinvertebrates). Over 42 days, δ¹⁵N values increased while δ¹³C values did not change, additionally neither were related to diet treatment. Increased δ¹⁵N values were negatively related to body condition while δ¹³C values were not, indicating that stable isotope values were more affected by decreasing body condition than by diet. Additionally, δ¹⁵N values changed more in the blood and liver tissues than in white muscle tissue, indicating that restricting food availability had greater effects on tissues with greater metabolic activity. We hypothesize that stable isotope values of consumers are subject to a tissue-specific trade-off between sensitivity to changes in resource use and resistance to the effects of low resource availability. This trade-off may require consideration in stable isotope studies of wild populations facing periodic limitations of food availability.     

Trophic plasticity among spring vs. cave populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gammarus minus:</Emphasis> examining functional niches using stable isotopes and C/N ratios

In some environments, species may exhibit trophic plasticity, which allows them to extend beyond their assigned functional group. For Gammarus minus, a freshwater amphipod classified as a shredder or detritivore, cave populations have been observed consuming heterotrophs as well as shredding leaves, and therefore may be exhibiting trophic plasticity. To test this possibility, we examined the C and N stable isotope and C/N ratios for cave and spring populations of G. minus. A 15-day feeding experiment using leaves and G. minus from a spring population established that the diet-tissue discrimination factor was 3.2 ‰ for δ¹⁵N. Cave G. minus were 8 ‰ higher in δ¹⁵N relative to cave leaves, indicating they did not derive nitrogen from leaves, whereas field collected spring populations were 2–3 ‰ higher than spring leaves, indicating that they did. Cave G. minus were 2.6 ‰ higher in δ¹⁵N than the cave isopod, Caecidotea holsingeri. Relative to spring populations, Organ Cave G. minus were ¹⁵N enriched by 6 ‰, suggesting they occupied a different trophic level, or incorporated an isotopically distinct N source. While stable isotopes cannot tell what the cave G. minus are eating, the isotopes certainly show that G. minus are not eating leaves and are trophically distinct form the surface populations. Differences in C/N ratios were observed, but reflect the size of the G. minus examined and not feeding group or habitat. The isotope data strongly support the hypothesis that cave populations of G. minus have become generalist or omnivorous by including animal protein in their diet.     

Avian pox infection in different wild birds in India

Amplicons of fpv167 and fpv140, of 578 and 1,800 bp, respectively, characteristic of the avipox viral genes, were amplified by PCR using DNA from viruses isolated from eight Indian wild birds. BLAST and phylogenetic analysis of the sequences of the fpv167 and fpv140 amplicons indicated that Fowlpox virus (FWPV) was the nearest phylogenetic neighbour to the viral isolates, from two Indian peacocks (Pavo cristatus), two golden pheasants (Chrysolophus pictus), one silver pheasant (Lopahura nycthemera) and one sparrow (Passer domesticus). However, the two isolates from the Indian little brown dove (Stigmatopelia senegalensis) and the common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) formed a separate cluster with turkeypox and pigeonpox virus (PGPV) isolates when the phylogenetic tree was constructed using the sequence of fpv167. When the phylogenetic analysis was done using the fpv140 gene sequence both isolates formed a cluster with isolates of PGPV. Thus, the results support that fpv140 gene along with the fpv167 gene should be used for phylogenetic analyses of avipoxviruses for better discrimination of the viruses. Additionally, avian poxvirus isolated from wild birds of India were identical to those reported in Indian domestic birds, and phylogenetically related to avian poxviruses reported from different parts of the world. To our knowledge, this is the first molecular characterization of avian poxviruses infecting different wild birds in India. The study shows that FWPV and PGPV cause infection in wild birds irrespective of the species of birds indicating that these viruses are not species specific. Thus these viruses, which are not host specific have the ability to cause infection in game birds, endangered birds and domestic birds and therefore could spread easily.