Expression of constitutively activated Akt in the mammary gland leads to excess lipid synthesis during pregnancy and lactation

Expression of constitutively activated Akt in the mammary glands of transgenic mice results in a delay in post-lactational involution. We now report precocious lipid accumulation in the alveolar epithelium of mouse mammary tumor virus-myr-Akt transgenic mice accompanied by a lactation defect that results in a 50% decrease in litter weight over the first 9 days of lactation. Although ductal structures and alveolar units develop normally during pregnancy, cytoplasmic lipid droplets appeared precociously in mammary epithelial cells in early pregnancy and were accompanied by increased expression of adipophilin, which is associated with lipid droplets. By late pregnancy the lipid droplets had become significantly larger than in nontransgenic mice, and they persisted into lactation. The fat content of milk from lactating myr-Akt transgenic mice was 65-70% by volume compared to 25-30% in wild-type mice. The diminished growth of pups nursed by transgenic mothers could result from the high viscosity of the milk and the inability of the pups to remove sufficient quantities of milk by suckling. Transduction of the CIT3 mammary epithelial cell line with a recombinant human adenovirus encoding myr-Akt resulted in an increase in glucose transport and lipid biosynthesis, suggesting that Akt plays an important role in regulation of lipid metabolism.     

siRNA-based gene silencing reveals specialized roles of IRS-1/Akt2 and IRS-2/Akt1 in glucose and lipid metabolism in human skeletal muscle

Type 2 diabetes is associated with defects in insulin signaling and the resulting abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism. The complexity of insulin signaling cascades is highlighted by the existence of multiple isoforms of target proteins implicated in metabolic and gene-regulatory events. We utilized siRNA to decipher the specific role of predominant insulin receptor substrates and Akt isoforms expressed in human skeletal muscle. Gene silencing revealed specialized roles of insulin signaling cascades to metabolic endpoints. IRS-1 and Akt2 were required for myoblast differentiation and glucose metabolism, whereas IRS-2 and Akt1 were dispensable. A key role of IRS-2 and Akt1 in lipid metabolism was revealed, highlighting reciprocal relationships between metabolic pathways. Unraveling the isoform-specific regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism by key elements along insulin signaling cascades through siRNA-mediated gene silencing in human tissues will facilitate the discovery of novel targets for the treatment of diabetes and related metabolic disorders.     

AUF1在胞质DNA抑制细胞葡萄糖代谢中的作用研究

目的 探讨AUF1在胞质DNA引起的细胞葡萄糖代谢应答中的作用及其机制。方法 (1)用核质分离技术分离细胞核与细胞质,并通过生物素-亲和素亲和层析技术分离细胞质中与胞质DNA(ISD)结合的蛋白质,然后通过“银染-质谱”和“复合物-质谱”技术鉴定出差异蛋白——AUF1。再利用体外结合实验验证AUF1与胞质DNA的相互作用。(2)在胞质DNA刺激后,通过ATP检测试剂盒和CCK8细胞氧还活力检测试剂,比较野生型细胞和基于CRISPR/Cas9技术的AUF1基因敲除细胞中葡萄糖代谢应答情况。(3)通过半定量PCR技术,在野生型、基因敲除AUF1、基因敲除后回补AUF1或空载体的四类细胞中检测葡萄糖转运蛋白GLUTs以及葡萄糖代谢相关酶的mRNA表达情况,筛选出与细胞糖代谢相关的AUF1下游效应分子——GLUT3。进而用实时荧光定量PCR进行验证。(4)通过半定量和荧光定量PCR分析胞质DNA刺激下GLUT3的mRNA变化情况,分析胞质DNA的刺激是否影响GLUT3的mRNA表达。结果 (1)两次质谱分析均发现AUF1能与ISD结合。体外结合实验也证实,不论是原核表达的GST-AUF1还是真核细胞表达的GFP-AUF1均能与单链和双链的ISD相结合。(2)基因敲除AUF1后的HEK293细胞在用胞质DNA刺激后,胞内的ATP水平和对CCK8的还原能力都明显高于野生型细胞。提示AUF1基因敲除细胞内的葡萄糖代谢不受胞质DNA刺激所抑制,说明AUF1很可能参与了胞质DNA对细胞糖代谢的调节。(3)半定量PCR技术检测发现在AUF1敲除的细胞中GLUT3的mRNA明显减少,而其他的GLUT家族成员和代谢酶则没有显著差异。实时荧光定量PCR证实上述现象,提示AUF1很可能通过稳定GLUT3的mRNA参与葡萄糖代谢的调节。(4)无论是单链还是双链ISD刺激后的细胞中,GLUT3的mRNA均减少,说明GLUT3可能是胞质DNA对糖代谢的调节过程中的一个下游效应分子。结论 AUF1能与胞质DNA结合,很可能通过调节下游GLUT3的mRNA稳定性参与胞质DNA引起的糖代谢应答反应。     

Loss of Akt1 leads to severe atherosclerosis and occlusive coronary artery disease

The Akt signaling pathway controls several cellular functions in the cardiovascular system; however, its role in atherogenesis is unknown. Here, we show that the genetic ablation of Akt1 on an apolipoprotein E knockout background (ApoE^−/−Akt1^−/−) increases aortic lesion expansion and promotes coronary atherosclerosis. Mechanistically, lesion formation is due to the enhanced expression of proinflammatory genes and endothelial cell and macrophage apoptosis. Bone marrow transfer experiments showing that macrophages from ApoE^−/−Akt1^−/− donors were not sufficient to worsen atherogenesis when transferred to ApoE^−/− recipients suggest that lesion expansion in the ApoE^−/−Akt1^−/− strain might be of vascular origin. In the vessel wall, the loss of Akt1 increases inflammatory mediators and reduces eNOS phosphorylation, suggesting that Akt1 exerts vascular protection against atherogenesis. The presence of coronary lesions in ApoE^−/−Akt1^−/− mice provides a new model for studying the mechanisms of acute coronary syndrome in humans.     

Akt2 regulates cardiac metabolism and cardiomyocyte survival

The Akt family of serine-threonine kinases participates in diverse cellular processes, including the promotion of cell survival, glucose metabolism, and cellular protein synthesis. All three known Akt family members, Akt1, Akt2 and Akt3, are expressed in the myocardium, although Akt1 and Akt2 are most abundant. Previous studies demonstrated that Akt1 and Akt3 overexpression results in enhanced myocardial size and function. Yet, little is known about the role of Akt2 in modulating cardiac metabolism, survival, and growth. Here, we utilize murine models with targeted disruption of the akt2 or the akt1 genes to demonstrate that Akt2, but not Akt1, is required for insulin-stimulated 2-[(3)H]deoxyglucose uptake and metabolism. In contrast, akt2(-/-) mice displayed normal cardiac growth responses to provocative stimulation, including ligand stimulation of cultured cardiomyocytes, pressure overload by transverse aortic constriction, and myocardial infarction. However, akt2(-/-) mice were found to be sensitized to cardiomyocyte apoptosis in response to ischemic injury, and apoptosis was significantly increased in the peri-infarct zone of akt2(-/-) hearts 7 days after occlusion of the left coronary artery. These results implicate Akt2 in the regulation of cardiomyocyte metabolism and survival.     

Proteomic analysis of microsomes from lactating bovine mammary gland

Mammary gland has multiple metabolic potential including for large-scale synthesis of milk proteins, carbohydrate, and lipids including nutrient triacylglycerols. We have carried out a proteomic analysis of mammary tissue to discover proteins that affect lipid metabolism. Unfractionated microsomes from lactating bovine mammary tissue were analyzed using one-dimensional SDS-PAGE with RPLC-ESI-MS/MS. This approach gave 703 proteins including 160 predicted transmembrane proteins. Proteins were classified according to their subcellular localizations and biological functions. Over 50 proteins were associated with cellular uptake, metabolism, and secretion of lipids, including some enzymes that have been previously associated with breast cancer and potential therapeutic targets. This database develops a proteomic view of the metabolic potential of mammary gland that can be expected to contribute to a greater understanding of gene expression and tissue remodeling associated with lactation, and to further dissection of normal and pathological processes in mammary tissue.     

去泛素化酶OTUB1肝脏特异性基因敲除小鼠模型的构建与表型分析

目的:建立OTUB1肝脏特异性基因敲除小鼠模型,初步分析其表型并研究OTUB1基因与肝脏代谢的关系。方法:利用Cre/Loxp系统构建条件性基因敲除小鼠模型,即将OTUB1~(fl/fl)转基因小鼠与Alb-Cre小鼠杂交,子代自交,得到OTUB1肝特异性基因敲除小鼠并进行鉴定。取同窝对照小鼠(control,NC)和肝特异型基因敲除(hepatic-specific OTUB1 knockout,HCKO)小鼠,通过PCR和免疫印迹(Western blot),确证OTUB1肝脏特异性基因敲除小鼠模型是否成功构建。通过组织病理学方法,分析主要组织器官的形态以及是否存在自发的病变;通过血清生化指标检测肝脏脂代谢水平;通过血糖耐受实验(GTT)分析HCKO小鼠对血糖的控制。结果:基因组测序和Western blot检测结果显示HCKO小鼠肝脏中OTUB1被敲除,其他组织中OTUB1表达水平无变化,证明OTUB1肝脏特异性基因敲除小鼠模型构建成功。HCKO小鼠出生正常,各组织器官无异常,生化指标中总胆固醇水平明显降低,表明OTUB1影响肝脏脂代谢水平。糖耐受实验中HCKO小鼠血糖回落迅速,表明敲除OTUB1影响肝脏血糖调节稳态。结论:应用Cre/Loxp技术成功建立OTUB1肝脏特异性基因敲除小鼠模型,为研究OTUB1在肝脏的生理功能和调控机制提供了重要的动物模型。     

Identification and validation of the pathways and functions regulated by the orphan nuclear receptor,ROR alpha1, in skeletal muscle

The retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor (ROR) alpha has been demonstrated to regulate lipid metabolism. We were interested in the RORα1 dependent physiological functions in skeletal muscle. This major mass organ accounts for ∼40% of the total body mass and significant levels of lipid catabolism, glucose disposal and energy expenditure. We utilized the strategy of targeted muscle-specific expression of a truncated (dominant negative) RORα1ΔDE in transgenic mice to investigate RORα1 signaling in this tissue. Expression profiling and pathway analysis indicated that RORα influenced genes involved in: (i) lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, cardiovascular and metabolic disease; (ii) LXR nuclear receptor signaling and (iii) Akt and AMPK signaling. This analysis was validated by quantitative PCR analysis using TaqMan low-density arrays, coupled to statistical analysis (with Empirical Bayes and Benjamini–Hochberg). Moreover, westerns and metabolic profiling were utilized to validate the genes, proteins and pathways (lipogenic, Akt, AMPK and fatty acid oxidation) involved in the regulation of metabolism by RORα1. The identified genes and pathways were in concordance with the demonstration of hyperglycemia, glucose intolerance, attenuated insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt and impaired glucose uptake in the transgenic heterozygous Tg-RORα1ΔDE animals. In conclusion, we propose that RORα1 is involved in regulating the Akt2-AMPK signaling pathways in the context of lipid homeostasis in skeletal muscle.     

Thioredoxin-interacting protein regulates lipid metabolism via Akt/mTOR pathway in diabetic kidney disease

Abnormal lipid metabolism contributes to the renal lipid accumulation, which is associated with diabetic kidney disease, but its precise mechanism remains unclear. The growing evidence demonstrates that thioredoxin-interacting protein is involved in regulating cellular glucose and lipid metabolism. Here, we investigated the effects of thioredoxin-interacting protein on lipid accumulation in diabetic kidney disease. In contrast to the diabetic wild-type mice, the physical and biochemical parameters were improved in the diabetic thioredoxin-interacting protein knockout mice. The increased renal lipid accumulation, expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase and sterol regulatory element binding protein-1, and phosphorylated Akt and mTOR associated with diabetes in wild-type mice was attenuated in diabetic thioredoxin-interacting protein knockout mice. Furthermore, thioredoxin-interacting protein knockout significantly increased the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α, acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 and carnitine palmitoyltransferaser 1 in diabetic kidneys. In vitro experiments, using HK-2 cells, revealed that knockdown of thioredoxin-interacting protein inhibited high glucose-mediated lipid accumulation, expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase and sterol regulatory element binding protein-1, as well as activation of Akt and mTOR. Moreover, knockdown of thioredoxin-interacting protein reversed high glucose-induced reduction of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α, acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 and carnitine palmitoyltransferaser 1 expression in HK-2 cells. Importantly, blockade of Akt/mTOR signaling pathway with LY294002, a specific PI3K inhibitor, replicated these effects of thioredoxin-interacting protein silencing. Taken together, these data suggest that thioredoxin-interacting protein deficiency alleviates diabetic renal lipid accumulation through regulation of Akt/mTOR pathway, thioredoxin-interacting protein may be a potential therapeutic target for diabetic kidney disease.     

Glucose uptake is limiting in T cell activation and requires CD28-mediated Akt-dependent and independent pathways

T cell activation potently stimulates cellular metabolism to support the elevated energetic and biosynthetic demands of growth, proliferation, and effector function. We show that glucose uptake is limiting in T cell activation and that CD28 costimulation is required to allow maximal glucose uptake following TCR stimulation by up-regulating expression and promoting the cell surface trafficking of the glucose transporter Glut1. Regulation of T cell glucose uptake and Glut1 was critical, as low glucose prevented appropriate T cell responses. Additionally, transgenic expression of Glut1 augmented T cell activation, and led to accumulation of readily activated memory-phenotype T cells with signs of autoimmunity in aged mice. To further examine the regulation of glucose uptake, we analyzed CD28 activation of Akt, which appeared necessary for maximal glucose uptake of stimulated cells and which we have shown can promote Glut1 cell surface trafficking. Consistent with a role for Akt in Glut1 trafficking, transgenic expression of constitutively active myristoylated Akt increased glucose uptake of resting T cells, but did not alter Glut1 protein levels. Therefore, CD28 appeared to promote Akt-independent up-regulation of Glut1 and Akt-dependent Glut1 cell surface trafficking. In support of this model, coexpression of Glut1 and myristoylated Akt transgenes resulted in a synergistic increase in glucose uptake and accumulation of activated T cells in vivo that were largely independent of CD28. Induction of Glut1 protein and Akt regulation of Glut1 trafficking are therefore separable functions of CD28 costimulation that cooperate to promote glucose metabolism for T cell activation and proliferation.     

A model to estimate insulin sensitivity in dairy cows

Impairment of the insulin regulation of energy metabolism is considered to be an etiologic key component for metabolic disturbances. Methods for studies of insulin sensitivity thus are highly topical. There are clear indications that reduced insulin sensitivity contributes to the metabolic disturbances that occurs especially among obese lactating cows. Direct measurements of insulin sensitivity are laborious and not suitable for epidemiological studies. We have therefore adopted an indirect method originally developed for humans to estimate insulin sensitivity in dairy cows. The method, "Revised Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index" (RQUICKI) is based on plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin and free fatty acids (FFA) and it generates good and linear correlations with different estimates of insulin sensitivity in human populations. We hypothesized that the RQUICKI method could be used as an index of insulin function in lactating dairy cows. We calculated RQUICKI in 237 apparently healthy dairy cows from 20 commercial herds. All cows included were in their first 15 weeks of lactation. RQUICKI was not affected by the homeorhetic adaptations in energy metabolism that occurred during the first 15 weeks of lactation. In a cohort of 24 experimental cows fed in order to obtain different body condition at parturition RQUICKI was lower in early lactation in cows with a high body condition score suggesting disturbed insulin function in obese cows. The results indicate that RQUICKI might be used to identify lactating cows with disturbed insulin function.     

Hepatic mTORC2 activates glycolysis and lipogenesis through Akt, glucokinase, and SREBP1c

Mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) phosphorylates and activates AGC kinase family members, including Akt, SGK1, and PKC, in response to insulin/IGF1. The liver is a key organ in insulin-mediated regulation of metabolism. To assess the role of hepatic mTORC2, we generated liver-specific rictor knockout (LiRiKO) mice. Fed LiRiKO mice displayed loss of Akt Ser473 phosphorylation and reduced glucokinase and SREBP1c activity in the liver, leading to constitutive gluconeogenesis, and impaired glycolysis and lipogenesis, suggesting that the mTORC2-deficient liver is unable to sense satiety. These liver-specific defects resulted in systemic hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and hypolipidemia. Expression of constitutively active Akt2 in mTORC2-deficient hepatocytes restored both glucose flux and lipogenesis, whereas glucokinase overexpression rescued glucose flux but not lipogenesis. Thus, mTORC2 regulates hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism via insulin-induced Akt signaling to control whole-body metabolic homeostasis. These findings have implications for emerging drug therapies that target mTORC2.     

Nitrite augments glucose uptake in adipocytes through the protein kinase A-dependent stimulation of mitochondrial fusion

Though it is well accepted that adipose tissue is central in the regulation of glycemic homeostasis, the molecular mechanisms governing adipocyte glucose uptake remain unclear. Recent studies demonstrate that mitochondrial dynamics (fission and fusion) regulate lipid accumulation and differentiation in adipocytes. However, the role of mitochondrial dynamics in glucose homeostasis has not been explored. The nitric oxide oxidation products nitrite and nitrate are endogenous signaling molecules and dietary constituents that have recently been shown to modulate glucose metabolism, prevent weight gain, and reverse the development of metabolic syndrome in mice. Although the mechanism of this protection is unclear, the mitochondrion is a known subcellular target for nitrite signaling. Thus, we hypothesize that nitrite modulates mitochondrial dynamics and function to regulate glucose uptake in adipocytes. Herein, we demonstrate that nitrite significantly increases glucose uptake in differentiated murine adipocytes through a mechanism dependent on mitochondrial fusion. Specifically, nitrite promotes mitochondrial fusion by increasing the profusion protein mitofusin 1 while concomitantly activating protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates and inhibits the profission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Functionally, this signaling augments cellular respiration, fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial oxidant production, and glucose uptake. Importantly, inhibition of PKA or Drp1 significantly attenuates nitrite-induced mitochondrial respiration and glucose uptake. These findings demonstrate that mitochondria play an essential metabolic role in adipocytes, show a novel role for both nitrite and mitochondrial fusion in regulating adipocyte glucose homeostasis, and have implications for the potential therapeutic use of nitrite and mitochondrial modulators in glycemic regulation.     

Lactation alters the relationship between liver lipid synthesis and hepatic fat stores in the postpartum period

In mothers who are nursing their infants, increased clearance of plasma metabolites into the mammary gland may reduce ectopic lipid in the liver. No study to date has investigated the role of lactation on liver lipid synthesis in humans, and we hypothesized that lactation would modify fatty acid and glucose handling to support liver metabolism in a manner synchronized with the demands of milk production. Lactating (n = 18) and formula-feeding women (n = 10) underwent metabolic testing at 6-week postpartum to determine whether lactation modified intrahepatic triacylglycerols (IHTGs), measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Subjects ingested oral deuterated water to measure fractional de novo lipogenesis (DNL) in VLDL-TG during fasting and during an isotope-labeled clamp at an insulin infusion rate of 10 mU/m²/min. Compared with formula-feeding women, we found that lactating women exhibited lower plasma VLDL-TG concentrations, similar IHTG content and similar contribution of DNL to total VLDL-TG production. These findings suggest that lactation lowers plasma VLDL-TG concentrations for reasons that are unrelated to IHTG and DNL. Surprisingly, we determined that the rate of appearance of nonesterified fatty acids was not related to IHTG in either group, and the expected positive association between DNL and IHTG was only significant in formula-feeding women. Further, in lactating women only, the higher the prolactin concentration, the lower the IHTG, while greater DNL strongly associated with elevations in VLDL-TG. In conclusion, we suggest that future studies should investigate the role of lactation and prolactin in liver lipid secretion and metabolism.     

The Akt kinases: Isoform specificity in metabolism and cancer

The Akt (PKB) protein kinases are critical regulators of human physiology that control an impressive array of diverse cellular functions, including the modulation of growth, survival, proliferation and metabolism. The Akt kinase family is comprised of three highly homologous isoforms: Akt1 (PKBα), Akt2 (PKBβ) and Akt3 (PKBγ). Phenotypic analyses of Akt isoform knockout mice documented Akt isoform specific functions in the regulation of cellular growth, glucose homeostasis and neuronal development. Those studies establish that the functions of the different Akt kinases are not completely overlapping and that isoform-specific signaling contributes to the diversity of Akt activities. However, despite these important advances, a thorough understanding about the specific roles of Akt family members and the molecular mechanisms that determine Akt isoform functional specificity will be essential to elucidate the complexity of Akt regulated cellular processes and how Akt isoform-specific deregulation might contribute to disease states. Here, we summarize recent advances in understanding the roles of Akt isoforms in the regulation of metabolism and cancer, and possible mechanisms contributing to Akt isoform functional specificity.