L’industrie lithique des gisements du Pléistocène inférieur de Barranco León et Fuente Nueva 3 à Orce, Grenade, Espagne

The archaeological localities of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 in Orce, Grenade, in actuality have the oldest lithic artifacts in Europe; they are the oldest evidence of human occupation in the east of Europe. When compared the results from faunal analysis and magnetostratigraphical study, notably through the presence of Allophaiomys lavocati allow for a date of around 1.3 Ma. The raw material used for developing these lithic industries are, basically limestone or siliceous rocks, these raw materials selected were smoothed down in situ. The techniques used are knapping at raised with a hammerstone, and we can find all the different elements of the “chaine opératoire”. Both localities are characterised by the predominance of flakes and debris, cores, and some knapped cobbles sowing mediocre aspect. The technical and typological features of both lithic assemblages have an opportunist character but they are relatively sophisticated too.     

Nature des roches et aires d’approvisionnement en matière première des industries lithiques archaïques des premiers habitants de l’Europe. Exploitation des territoires

The archaic lithic industries of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva sites in Orce in Andalusia and the stone tools of the Vallonnet french site was studied by petroarcheological analyses and reveal the sources exploited by the hominids. The localisation of these sources give data to define the territory exploited. These three examples provide the opportunity to assess the raw material selectivity, the behaviour and the territory occupation system of the first inhabitants of Europe. These lithic industries are composed by local raw material collected very close to the site or even on the site. These sources were probably an important argument on choosing the occupation site.     

On the ecological scenario of the first hominin dispersal out of Africa

The archaeopaleontological site of Dmanisi in Georgia, dated to ～1.8 Ma, provides evidence on the first hominin dispersal out of Africa, while the sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva-3 in Spain, dated to ～1.4 Ma, record the earliest hominin settlements in Europe. However, a number of issues related to the dispersal route, the climatic conditions and the ecological scenario of this dispersal event are subject to debate. In a recent paper in L’anthropologie, Agustí and Lordkipanidze (2019) proposed an alternative scenario for the arrival of hominins in the Caucasus, which they conceived as a forest refugium area during the Early Pleistocene, and discarded that their dispersal coincided with that of other members of the Ethiopian and Asian faunas, like the sabertooth Megantereon whitei or the giant hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris. Our review of these issues suggests that: (i) the elongated sabers and reduced postcanine teeth of African M. whitei limited the ability of this predator to process the prey carcass, which resulted in scavengeable resources for the Dmanisi hominins; (ii) the mass estimate in excess of 100 kg obtained for the trochlear perimeter of the distal humerus of the hyena from Dmanisi shows that it can be confidently ascribed to the genus Pachycrocuta; (iii) the postcranial anatomy of the Dmanisi hominins was not advantageous for scavenging tree-stored prey; (iv) the laterally flattened upper canines of M. whitei could not withstand the loads that would result from climbing a prey carcass into a tree; (v) paleobotanical analyses suggest a temperate grassland ecosystem in Dmanisi, not dominant forest conditions, with enhanced aridity in the level of hominin occupation; (vi) similarly, the low frequency of arboreal pollen in the Levantine Corridor at ～1.8 Ma points to more arid conditions than today in this area; (vii) many archaeopaleontological sites of the Rift Valley and its extension towards the Red Sea, the Levant and the Caucasus show evidence of tectonic, volcanic and/or hydrothermal events; and (viii) the delay of 400 ka in the arrival of hominins in Western Europe did not result from a lower availability of scavengeable resources.     

Les stratégies de débitage dans les industries lithiques archaïques des premiers habitants de l’Europe

Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 sites at Orce in the south of Spain, and Vallonnet cave in the south of France, are some of the oldest sites in Europe, testimonies of the first settlements of these territories. The Orce sites, dated around 1.3-1.2 Ma, have given away numerous lithic artifacts principally issued from an important débitage activity. The beginning of flake production processes is few represented into these two consummation sites. In return, full débitage flakes are in high proportion, with generally short dimensions, in consequence of which, in some case an intense core reduction. Two percussion methods are identified: with direct percussion or on anvil. Sometimes, there was débitage on flake, taking advantage of the inferior face natural convexity of the core-flake, permitting the maximal exploitation and the economy of the best raw materials. The bipolar percussion on anvil permitted the maximal exploitation of the short dimensions supports, often in naturally cubic or sub-cubic form. A lot of the producted flakes, sometimes called “pièces esquillées”, show some scales on the distal and/or proximal transversal edges, issued from this bipolar knapping method. In the Vallonnet cave, where the occupation levels are dated around 1 Ma, the lithic industry show a lot of percussion tools and hammerstone flakes, but also some core reduction flakes and some very rares cores, especially in flint. This good raw material was chosen for the débitage, and the flakes show on superior face several anterior removals, and a butt which could reveal a striking platform preparation. At the gates of Europe, in Georgia, Dmanisi site give away an abundant lithic industry associated with faunal and human remains, dated around 1.81 to 1.77 Ma. Amid the lithic assemblages, cores are rather frequent and are characterized by a poor degree of exploitation, most often unifacial, and high frequency of cortical striking platforms. Raw materials, essentially volcanic cobbles, were from local origin, and the knapped supports were often chosen for their angular morphology adequate to begin the débitage in easier way, débitage which was essentially by direct percussion.     

Combined ESR/U-series chronology of Acheulian hominid-bearing layers at Trinchera Galería site,Atapuerca, Spain

The Sierra de Atapuerca, northern Spain, is known from many prehistoric and palaeontological sites documenting human prehistory in Europe. Three major sites, Gran Dolina, Galería and Sima del Elefante, range in age from the oldest hominin of Western Europe dated to 1.1 to 1.3 Ma (millions of years ago) at Sima del Elefante to c.a. 0.2 Ma on the top of the Galería archaeological sequence. Recently, a chronology based on luminescence methods (Thermoluminescence [TL] and Infrared Stimulated Luminescence [IRSL]) applied to cave sediments was published for the Gran Dolina and Galería sites. The authors proposed for Galería an age of 450 ka (thousands of years ago) for the units lower GIII and GII, suggesting that the human occupation there is younger than the hominid remains of Sima de los Huesos (>530 ka) around 1 km away.     

Réévaluation de la présence humaine au Pléistocène inférieur dans le Sud de l'Espagne

The Early Pleistocene locality at Venta Micena (Orce, Guadix-Baza basin, province of Granada, Spain) has provided four fossil remains - skull fragment VM-0, and long bone diaphyses VM-1960, VM-3691, and VM-12000 - which have been tentatively attributed to the hominids. Although several methodologies have been used to ascertain the human affinities of these specimens - including anatomical, morphometric and immunological analyses - the results obtained have not been conclusive, instigating a persistent debate. A taphonomic approach is used here for estimating the probability that a taxon the size of Homo sp. (~ 50 kg) could be represented in the fossil assemblage by four bone fragments and no tooth remain. A least-squares regression analysis between the percentage of teeth and the body mass estimated for each taxon of large mammals (N = 20) predicts a raw abundance of six teeth for Homo sp. in the assemblage. Given that up to the present moment no tooth remains attributable to the hominids has been unearthed during systematic excavations in the Venta Micena quarry, which has provided more than 15,000 fossils of large mammals, this argues strongly against the possibility that the three bone specimens could belong to Homo sp. The phalanx CV-0 from the Early Pleistocene site of Cueva Victoria (Cartagena, Spain) has also been attributed to the genus Homo. The taxonomic assignment of this specimen is biased, however, because it was not compared with Theropithecus oswaldi, the only primate species actually recorded from this karstic locality. A comparative anatomical and morphometric analysis of fossil and modern specimens of Theropithecus suggests that CV-0 can be attributed to T. oswaldi. As a result, Cueva Victoria does not contribute additional information concerning the first human settlements in Europe. By these reasons, apart from the paleoanthropological and archaeological findings from Atapuerca (TD lower levels and Sima del Elefante), the rich archaeological assemblages from Barranco León and Fuente Nueva-3 in Orce, dated 1.3-1.2 Myrs, which include fourteen hundred stone tools of Oldowan technology, constitute at present the only unequivocal evidence of human presence in Southeast Spain during Early Pleistocene times.     

Actividad ortogeriátrica en los hospitales públicos de Castilla y León: descripción y revisión de la literatura

The benefits of the collaboration between orthopaedics and geriatrics in the management and care of elderly patients admitted with hip fracture have been widely demonstrated. A questionnaire was sent to all hospital geriatricians of Castilla y León in order to determine the characteristics this collaboration between orthopaedics and geriatrics in the public hospitals of Castilla y León. They were asked about the type of collaboration with orthopaedics in the care of the elderly patient admitted with hip fracture and details of the treatment of the complications. Most of the hospitals maintain a high level of orthogeriatric collaboration with geriatricians, and the geriatrician attends to most of the medical complications of these patients. The average hospital stay is 10 days, with a surgical delay of 3 days. Management of the most frequent clinical problems in hospitals of Castilla y León are detailed in this article, comparing them with the latest articles and current recommendations from clinical practice guides.     

A study of hominin dispersal out of Africa using computer simulations

A study of hominin dispersal out of Africa using computer simulations is presented. Attention is focused on the joint probability of the colonization of Western Europe later than 1 Ma and that of Eastern Asia prior to 1.6 or 1.8 Ma, as current archaeological estimates suggest. We found that the determinant factor to hominin dispersal is the mode of hominin movement. If the movement of all populations is uniform and their number great enough, greater than 300 in our models, then such movement favors the colonization of Eastern Asia and Western Europe at more or less the same time. On the other hand, the colonization acquires prominent probabilistic features if the number of populations migrating is small enough, smaller than 10 in our models, or when all hominin populations may move but there are only a few with much higher mobility. In this case, the joint probability for the earliest dispersals of hominins in Western Europe after 1 Ma and Eastern Asia prior to 1.6 Ma ranges from 0.02 to 0.05. The single probability of colonization of Western Europe after 1 Ma is very high, about 0.5 for the majority of the colonization routes, whereas the corresponding probability of the colonization of Eastern Asia prior to 1.6 Ma is ten times lower, about 0.05. The least probable event is the earliest colonization of Java prior to 1.6 Ma, to which our simulation attributes a probability of ca 0.01. Deserts, mountains, and mountain ranges may delay the arrival at a certain location; nevertheless, their effect on the joint probability is very small.     

Earliest Archaeological Evidence of Persistent Hominin Carnivory

The emergence of lithic technology by ∼2.6 million years ago (Ma) is often interpreted as a correlate of increasingly recurrent hominin acquisition and consumption of animal remains. Associated faunal evidence, however, is poorly preserved prior to ∼1.8 Ma, limiting our understanding of early archaeological (Oldowan) hominin carnivory. Here, we detail three large well-preserved zooarchaeological assemblages from Kanjera South, Kenya. The assemblages date to ∼2.0 Ma, pre-dating all previously published archaeofaunas of appreciable size. At Kanjera, there is clear evidence that Oldowan hominins acquired and processed numerous, relatively complete, small ungulate carcasses. Moreover, they had at least occasional access to the fleshed remains of larger, wildebeest-sized animals. The overall record of hominin activities is consistent through the stratified sequence – spanning hundreds to thousands of years – and provides the earliest archaeological evidence of sustained hominin involvement with fleshed animal remains (i.e., persistent carnivory), a foraging adaptation central to many models of hominin evolution.     

Airborne pollen and spores of León (Spain)

A qualitative and quantitative analysis of airborne pollen and spores was carried out over 2 years (from September 1987 to August 1989) in the city of León. Slides were prepared daily using a volumetric pollen trap, which was placed on the Faculty of Veterinary Science building (University of León) 12m above ground-level. Fifty-one pollen types were observed; the most important of these were: Cupressaceae during the winter,Pinus andQuercus in spring, and Poaceae, Leguminosae and Chenopodiaceae in the summer. The results also showed the existence of a rich mould spore assemblage in the atmosphere. The group of Amerospores (Penicillium, Aspergillus andCladosporium) as well as Dictyospores (Alternaria) were the most abundant;Puccinia was common in the air in August. Fluctuations in the total pollen and spores m³ of air were compared with meteorological parameters (temperature, relative humidity and rainfall). From the daily sampling of the atmosphere of León, considering the maximum and minimum temperature and duration of rainfall, the start of the pollen grain season was observed generally to coincide with a rise in temperature in the absence of rain.     

Re-appraisal of the stratigraphy and determination of new U-Pb dates for the Sterkfontein hominin site, South Africa

Sterkfontein Caves is the single richest early hominin site in the world with deposits yielding one or more species of Australopithecus and possible early Homo, as well as an extensive faunal collection. The inability to date the southern African cave sites accurately or precisely has hindered attempts to integrate the hominin fossil evidence into pan-African scenarios about human evolutionary history, and especially hominin biogeography. We have used U-Pb and U-Th techniques to date sheets of calcium carbonate flowstone inter-bedded between the fossiliferous sediments. For the first time, absolute age ranges can be assigned to the fossil-bearing deposits: Member 2 is between 2.8 ± 0.28 and 2.6 ± 0.30 Ma and Member 4 between 2.65 ± 0.30 and 2.01 ± 0.05 Ma. The age of 2.01 ± 0.05 Ma for the top of Member 4 constrains the last appearance of Australopithecus africanus to 2 Ma. In the Silberberg Grotto we have reproduced the U-Pb age of ∼2.2 Ma of for the flowstones associated with StW573. We believe that these deposits, including the fossil and the flowstones, accumulated rapidly around 2.2 Ma. The stratigraphy of the site is complex as sediments are exposed both in the underground chambers and at surface. We present a new interpretation of the stratigraphy based on surface mapping, boreholes logs and U-Pb ages. Every effort was made to retain the Member system, however, only Members 2 and 4 are recognized in the boreholes. We propose that the deposits formally known as Member 3 are in fact the distal equivalents of Member 4. The sediments of Members 2 and 4 consisted of cone-like deposits and probably never filled up the cave. The U-Th ages show that there are substantial deposits younger than 400 ka in the underground cave, underlying the older deposits, highlighting again that these cave fills are not simple layer-cakes.     

Les industries lithiques préoldowayennes du début du Pléistocène inférieur du site de Dmanissi en Géorgie

The lithic industry discovered at the Dmanissi site, in Georgia is dated to between 1.81 and 1.7 Myrs and is in association with a rich faunal assemblage composed of large Quaternary vertebrates, as well as several hominid fossils attributed to Homo georgicus, and attests to the human presence on the border of Europe at the beginning of the Lower Pleistocene. The material taken into account in this study was excavated from 1991 to 1999 and comprises 4446 lithic pieces coming from Beds I through VI of the site. The assemblage is very homogenous from the base to the top of the deposits and shows no significative evolutionary tendencies. The lithic material includes a high proportion of whole pebbles (33.8% of the assemblage) coming from two nearby rivers, the Mashavera and the Pinezaouri. They are essentially of fine and coarse grained volcanic tuff, basalt, but also of rhyolite, granite, quartz, as well as other volcanic and metamorphic rocks. Pebbles used for percussion, shaping or debitage were chosen according to their petrographic nature, their morphology and their size. Whole pebbles with percussion marks situated on their extremities or with isolated removals showing convexe edges, are abundant (1.3% of the assemblage). Other pebbles showing percussion marks on a flat face, were used as anvils. Broken pebbles and pebble fragments are very numerous (30.4% of the assemblage). These often show percussion marks on their cortical surfaces. Fractures are generally related to violent percussion as the pebbles were used for striking instruments, or as they were intentionally broken. Some fractures may have been caused accidentally during flaking. Pebble tools represent 4.8% of the lithic assemblage and 10% of the industry, excluding whole and fractured pebbles. These include essentially the primary choppers (pebbles with isolated concave removal negatives) (6% of the industry and 60.1% of the pebble tools), choppers showing continuous cutting edges without a point (2.1% of the industry and 21.2% of the pebble tools). Chopping-tools are very rare (0.8% of the industry and 8.7% of the pebble tools). Although choppers without pointed cutting edges were made using very few removals (3.3 on average), they usually present a regular cutting edge and seem relatively standardised. Cores are well represented (5% of the industry, excluding whole and broken pebbles). They are characterized by a low degree of exploitation and by a frequence of cortical striking platforms. Cored knapped on a single face are most frequent, representing nearly half of the pieces (42.3%), while bifacial cores are present in smaller proportions (34.2%) and multifacial cores are rare (6.3%). Non-modified flakes are very numerous and usually of small size and intentional retouch is absent. On the other hand, the cuttingedges of many the pieces; broken pebbles, pebble tools, cores and flakes, show irregular micro-retouch and irregular retouch such as isolated notches or with continuous or overlapping configuration, sometimes associated with localised crush marks which appear to have been caused by intensive use and heavy working of the pieces. A total of 31.3% of the non-modified flakes show irregular retouch on their cutting edges. One of the main characteristics of the Dmanissi industry appears therefore to be the obtaining of flakes, most often of small size, to be used without modification. The technological and typological characteristics of the lithic industry from Dmanissi allow to attribute the assemblage to a "Pre-Oldowayen" cultural horizon (Lumley de et al., 2004), characterized by the absence of small retouched tools, which appears in East Africa from 2.55 Myrs ago. This cultural horizon is present at the border of Europe, at Dmanissi, around 1.81 Myrs ago and in Western Europe, on the shores of the Mediterranean, at Barranco León about 1.3 Myrs ago and at Fuente Nueva 3 about 1.2 Myrs ago. The lithic industry from the Dmanissi site seems anterior to the Oldowan cultural horizon, characterized by the presence of standardized small retouched tools, which appears in East Africa around 1.8 Myrs ago and emerges in Mediterranean Europe around 800?000 years ago.     

Improved age control on early Homo fossils from the upper Burgi Member at Koobi Fora,Kenya

To address questions regarding the evolutionary origin, radiation and dispersal of the genus Homo, it is crucial to be able to place the occurrence of hominin fossils in a high-resolution chronological framework. The period around 2 Ma (millions of years ago) in eastern Africa is of particular interest as it is at this time that a more substantial fossil record of the genus Homo is first found. Here we combine magnetostratigraphy and strontium (Sr) isotope stratigraphy to improve age control on hominin-bearing upper Burgi (UBU) deposits in Areas 105 and 131 on the Karari Ridge in the eastern Turkana Basin (Kenya). We identify the base of the Olduvai subchron (bC2n) plus a short isolated interval of consistently normal polarity that we interpret to be the Pre-Olduvai event. Combined with precession-forced (∼20 kyr [thousands of years]) wet–dry climate cycles resolved by Sr isotope ratios, the magnetostratigraphic data allow us to construct an age model for the UBU deposits. We provide detailed age constraints for 15 hominin fossils from Area 131, showing that key specimens such as cranium KNM-ER 1470, partial face KNM-ER 62000 and mandibles KNM-ER 1482, KNM-ER 1801, and KNM-ER 1802 can be constrained between 1.945 ± 0.004 and 2.058 ± 0.034 Ma, and thus older than previously estimated. The new ages are consistent with a temporal overlap of two species of early Homo that can be distinguished by their facial morphology. Further, our results show that in this time interval, hominins occurred throughout the wet–dry climate cycles, supporting the hypothesis that the lacustrine Turkana Basin was a refugium during regionally dry periods. By establishing the observed first appearance datum of a marine-derived stingray in UBU deposits at 2.058 ± 0.034 Ma, we show that at this time the Turkana Basin was hydrographically connected to the Indian Ocean, facilitating dispersal of fauna between these areas. From a biogeographical perspective, we propose that the Indian Ocean coastal strip should be considered as a possible source area for one or more of the multiple Homo species in the Turkana Basin from over 2 Ma onwards.     

Hominins likely occupied northern Europe before one million years ago

Our understanding of when hominins first reached northern Europe is dependent on a fragmented archaeological and fossil record known from as early as marine isotope stage (MIS) 21 or 25 (c. 840 or 950 thousand years ago [Ka]). This contrasts sharply with southern Europe, where hominin occupation is evidenced from MIS 37 to 45 (c. 1.22 or 1.39 million years ago [Ma]). Northern Europe, however, exhibits climatic, geological, demographic, and historical disadvantages when it comes to preserving fossil and archaeological evidence of early hominin habitation. It is argued here that perceived differences in first occupation timings between the two European regions needs to be revised in light of these factors. To enhance this understanding, optimal linear estimation models are run using data from the current fossil and artefact record. Results suggest northern Europe to have first been occupied as early as 1.16 Ma, or as late as 913 Ka. These timings could represent minimum date expectations and be extended through future archaeological and fossil discoveries.     

A human mandible (BH-1) from the Pleistocene deposits of Mala Balanica cave (Sićevo Gorge, Niš, Serbia)

Neandertals and their immediate predecessors are commonly considered to be the only humans inhabiting Europe in the Middle and early Late Pleistocene. Most Middle Pleistocene western European specimens show evidence of a developing Neandertal morphology, supporting the notion that these traits evolved at the extreme West of the continent due, at least partially, to the isolation produced by glacial events. The recent discovery of a mandible, BH-1, from Mala Balanica (Serbia), with primitive character states comparable with Early Pleistocene mandibular specimens, is associated with a minimum radiometric date of 113 + 72 − 43 ka. Given the fragmented nature of the hemi-mandible and the fact that primitive character states preclude assignment to a species, the taxonomic status of the specimen is best described as an archaic Homo sp. The combination of primitive traits and a possible Late Pleistocene date suggests that a more primitive morphology, one that does not show Neandertal traits, could have persisted in the region. Different hominin morphologies could have survived and coexisted in the Balkans, the “hotspot of biodiversity.” This first hominin specimen to come from a secure stratigraphic context in the Central Balkans indicates a potentially important role for the region in understanding human evolution in Europe that will only be resolved with more concentrated research efforts in the area.     

Early Pleistocene human mandible from Sima del Elefante (TE) cave site in Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain): a palaeopathological study

Here we present a detailed palaeopathological study of the hominin mandible ATE9-1 found at the Sima del Elefante site (TE), Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain. This fossil represents the earliest hominin remains from Western Europe with an age of ca. 1.3 Ma. The specimen displays several dento-gnathic lesions; the antiquity and geographic location of this fossil justifies a detailed palaeopathological study to determine if the pathologies have significantly altered taxonomically relevant features. Our study reveals severe dental attrition combined with generalized hypercementosis, alveolar root exposure, mild periodontal disease, tooth dislocation, and an anomalous occlusal plane. We have also observed calculus deposits, two cystic lesions and an anomalous wear facet compatible with tooth picking. The majority of these pathological signs can be explained by compensatory eruption. We propose that these lesions are associated as causes, consequences, and amplifiers of one another within the framework of heavy and even traumatic occlusion, masticatory habits, or both traumatic occlusion and masticatory habits. Despite the severity of these lesions, occlusion was at least partially functional so it was unlikely to influence the survival of this individual. In addition, the lesions do not prohibit the taxonomic assessment of the mandible.     

Significance of Polyamines for Flowering in Spirodela punctata

Spirodela punctata strain O 5, a quantitative long-day plant,flowers only when ethylene-diamine-di-o-hydroxyphenylaceticacid (EDDHA) or salicylic acid was added to the nutrient medium[Scharfetter et al. (1978) Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 87: 445]. Undersuch conditions, cyclohexylamine and methylglyoxal-bis(guanylhydrazone)(both blockers of polyamine synthesis) inhibited flowering withoutsignificant effects on vegetative growth. Supply of spermidineabolished completely the inhibitor effects, but cannot replacethe EDDHA effect on flowering. ¹Dedicated to Prof. O. H. Volk, Wurzburg, on his 85th birthday. ²Present address: Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, UniversidadAutónoma de Nuevo León. Ap. Post. 41, 67700 Linares,Nuevo León, México. (Received October 19, 1988; Accepted February 3, 1989)     

Biostratigraphy and sedimentary evolution of Late Miocene and Pliocene continental deposits of the Granada Basin (southern Spain)

The Late Miocene and Pliocene continental sediments in the Granada Basin (southern Spain) have yielded large amounts of fossil small mammals in 37 localities from 11 sections. The aim of this paper is to integrate faunistic, stratigraphic, and sedimentary criteria to unravel the geological history of the continental infilling of the basin. The palaeontological study has led to a detailed biozonation on the basis of rodents, which helps to correlate in detail the different sedimentary units found in the basin, and to follow the changes of the different sedimentary systems and their palaeogeographical evolution through time. Combination of the proposed biostratigraphy and the reinterpretation of the magnetostratigraphic analyses of the Barranco del Purcal section allows us to assign an absolute age slightly older than 5.23 Ma to the Turolian–Ruscinian boundary (MN13‐MN14).     

Biochronology of the first hominid remains in Europe using the vole Mimomys savini: Fuente Nueva 3 and Barranco León D,Guadix-Baza Basin,south-eastern Spain

The sites of Barranco León D (BL-D) and Fuente Nueva 3 (FN-3) in the Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada, Spain), together with the site of Sima del Elefante in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain), constitute one of the oldest records of the earliest hominid population in the European continent west of Dmanisi (Georgia, Lesser Caucasus). In the Guadix-Baza Basin, evidence of human occupation has been found to date in the form of lithic industry (Mode 1) and cut marks in large-mammal fossil remains (mainly of hippopotamuses and elephants), and recently a human tooth considered as the oldest in Europe has been discovered. Although in the case of Sima del Elefante there is unanimity among the scientific community regarding the chronology of the unit in which the hominid remains were found (Unit TE9c, 1.22 Ma), there is continuing debate on the chronology of the sites of the Guadix-Baza Basin (FN-3 and BL-D). This applies especially to BL-D, as the numerical datings published for this site have a very high error range (1.4 ± 0.38 Ma). In this paper, the chronology of these two sites is determined using as a marker the morphological and morphometric changes undergone by Mimomys savini in its first lower molar (m1) over the course of its evolutionary history. It has been possible to confirm that the oldest human presence in the Guadix-Baza Basin and at Sima del Elefante (Atapuerca) share a similar chronology, dated to between 1.1 and 1.4 Ma. Apparently, the oldest site with human remains in Europe is seen to be BL-D, dated to 1.26 ± 0.13 Ma, followed by Level TE9c, dated to 1.22 ± 0.16 Ma, and FN-3, dated to 1.20 ± 0.12 Ma.     

Molecular genetics as a tool to remove bottlenecks in the biosynthesis of β-lactam antibiotics

Several strains of Penicillium chrysogenum with different productions of penicillin were characterized at the molecular level in order to establish the basis of the increased penicillin production rates. The cluster of penicillin biosynthetic genes was located in an amplified genomic region of 57.9 kb in a high-producing strain (E1) and 106.5 kb in two strains (AS-P-78 and P2) producing moderately high levels of penicillin. This region was shown to be present in multiple tandemly repeated copies with a different copy number depending on the strain. The sequence TTTACA appeared at the junction points between repeats and at the borders of the amplified region in strains AS-P-78 and P2, while its reverse complementary TGTAAA was found in strain E1. The tandem reiteration and deletion appear to arise by site-specific recombination induced by mutagenic treatments. Finally, the relationship between glucose repression and pH regulation was studied in strain AS-P-78.F. Fierro, S. Gutiérrez, A. T. Marcos and J. F. Martín are with the Section of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of León, 24071 Leon, Spain, J. L. Barredo and B. Díez are with Antibióticos S.A., Avenida de Antibióticos 56, León, Spain.