Ion Trapping with Fast-Response Ion-Selective Microelectrodes Enhances Detection of Extracellular Ion Channel Gradients

Previously, functional mapping of channels has been achieved by measuring the passage of net charge and of specific ions with electrophysiological and intracellular fluorescence imaging techniques. However, functional mapping of ion channels using extracellular ion-selective microelectrodes has distinct advantages over the former methods. We have developed this method through measurement of extracellular K⁺ gradients caused by efflux through Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. We report that electrodes constructed with short columns of a mechanically stable K⁺-selective liquid membrane respond quickly and measure changes in local [K⁺] consistent with a diffusion model. When used in close proximity to the plasma membrane (<4 μm), the ISMs pose a barrier to simple diffusion, creating an ion trap. The ion trap amplifies the local change in [K⁺] without dramatically changing the rise or fall time of the [K⁺] profile. Measurement of extracellular K⁺ gradients from activated rSlo channels shows that rapid events, 10-55 ms, can be characterized. This method provides a noninvasive means for functional mapping of channel location and density as well as for characterizing the properties of ion channels in the plasma membrane.     

Extracellular Ba2+ and voltage interact to gate Ca2+ channels at the plasma membrane of stomatal guard cells

Ca2+ channels at the plasma membrane of stomatal guard cells contribute to increases in cytosolic free [Ca2+] ([Ca2+](i)) that regulate K+ and Cl- channels for stomatal closure in higher-plant leaves. Under voltage clamp, the initial rate of increase in [Ca2+](i) in guard cells is sensitive to the extracellular divalent concentration, suggesting a close interaction between the permeant ion and channel gating. To test this idea, we recorded single-channel currents across the Vicia guard cell plasma membrane using Ba2+ as a charge carrying ion. Unlike other Ca2+ channels characterised to date, these channels activate at hyperpolarising voltages. We found that the open probability (P(o)) increased strongly with external Ba2+ concentration, consistent with a 4-fold cooperative action of Ba2+ in which its binding promoted channel opening in the steady state. Dwell time analyses indicated the presence of a single open state and at least three closed states of the channel, and showed that both hyperpolarising voltage and external Ba2+ concentration prolonged channel residence in the open state. Remarkably, increasing Ba2+ concentration also enhanced the sensitivity of the open channel to membrane voltage. We propose that Ba2+ binds at external sites distinct from the permeation pathway and that divalent binding directly influences the voltage gate.     

Toxin-induced K+ efflux through the Na+ channel of neuroblastoma cells

Neurotoxins which modify the gating system of the Na+ channel in neuroblastoma cells and increase the initial rate of 22Na+ influx through this channel also give rise to the efflux of 86Rb+ and 42K+. These effluxes are inhibited by tetrodotoxin and are dependent on the presence in the extracellular medium of cations permeable to the Na+ channel. These stimulated effluxes are not due to membrane depolarization or increases in the intracellular content of Na+ and Ca2+ which occur subsequent to the action of neurotoxins. The relationships of 22Na+ influx and 42K+ (or 86Rb+) effluxes to both the concentration of neurotoxins and the concentration of external permeant cations strongly suggest that the open form of the Na+ channel stabilized by neurotoxins permits an efflux of K+ ions. Our results indicate that for the efflux of each K+ ion there is a corresponding influx of two Na+ ions into the Na+ channel.     

Changes in [K+]0 induced by transretinal currents in frog retina

Current-induced changes in extracellular potassium concentration (delta [K+]0) were measured with K+-selective microelectrodes in frog retina. A characteristic depth profile of delta[K+]0 was detected, which included significant changes in the superfusate just above the inner limiting membrane. This response was almost eliminated by Ba2+, a blocker of K+ channels. The delta[K+]0 in the superfusate is likely due to transcellular flux of K+, probably through Muller cell endfeet.     

Activation of AMPA/kainate receptors but not acetylcholine receptors causes Mg2+ influx into Retzius neurones of the leech Hirudo medicinalis

In Retzius neurones of the medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis, kainate activates ionotropic glutamate receptors classified as AMPA/kainate receptors. Activation of the AMPA/kainate receptor-coupled cation channels evokes a marked depolarization, intracellular acidification, and increases in the intracellular concentrations of Na+ ([Na+]i) and Ca2+. Qualitatively similar changes are observed upon the application of carbachol, an activator of acetylcholine receptor-coupled cation channels. Using multibarrelled ion-selective microelectrodes it was demonstrated that kainate, but not carbachol, caused additional increases in the intracellular free Mg2+ concentration ([Mg2+]i). Experiments were designed to investigate whether this kainate-induced [Mg2+]i increase was due to a direct Mg2+ influx through the AMPA/kainate receptor-coupled cation channels or a secondary effect due to the depolarization or the ionic changes. It was found that: (a) Similar [Mg2+]i increases were evoked by the application of glutamate or aspartate. (b) All kainate-induced effects were inhibited by the glutamatergic antagonist DNQX. (c) The magnitude of the [Mg2+]i increases depended on the extracellular Mg2+ concentration. (d) A reduction of the extracellular Ca2+ concentration increased kainate-induced [Mg2+]i increases, excluding possible Ca2+ interference at the Mg2+-selective microelectrode or at intracellular buffer sites. (e) Neither depolarizations evoked by the application of 30 mM K+, nor [Na+]i increases induced by the inhibition of the Na+/K+ ATPase caused comparable [Mg2+]i increases. (f) Inhibitors of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels did not affect the kainate-induced [Mg2+]i increases. Moreover, previous experiments had already shown that intracellular acidification evoked by the application of 20 mM propionate did not cause changes in [Mg2+]i. The results indicate that kainate-induced [Mg2+]i increases in leech Retzius neurones are due to an influx of extracellular Mg2+ through the AMPA/kainate receptor-coupled cation channel. Mg2+ may thus act as an intracellular signal to distinguish between glutamatergic and cholinergic activation of leech Retzius neurones.     

Cationic membrane conductances induced by intracellularly elevated cAMP and Ca2+: measurements with ion-selective microelectrodes

Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) and CaCl2 were injected by a fast and quantitative pressure injection technique into voltage-clamped, identified Helix neurons. Intracellular elevation of cAMP as well as of Ca2+ activated an inward current (IcAMP and IN). To identify the ionic fluxes during IcAMP and IN changes in [Na+]i, [K+]o, [H+]i, and [Cl-]i were measured with ion-selective microelectrodes (ISMs). Near resting potential, Na+ was the main carrier of IcAMP. K+, and less effectively Ca2+, could substitute for Na+ in carrying IcAMP. H+ and Cl- were excluded as current carriers for IcAMP by means of ISMs. Simultaneous to this action, cAMP decreased a K+ conductance. This decrease was associated with a reduction of the K+ efflux activated by long-lasting depolarizing voltage steps, as directly measured with ISMs located near the external membrane surface. The nearly compensatory increase and decrease of two membrane conductances in the same neuron left the cell input resistance unchanged despite the considerable depolarizing action of intracellularly elevated cAMP. IN was also of nonspecific nature. However, our findings indicate less selectivity for the Ca2+-activated nonspecific channels. Large cations such as choline, TEA, and Tris passed nearly as well as Na+ through the channels. Measurements with ISMs showed that [H+]i and [Cl-]i were unchanged during IN. IN was largest in bursting pacemaker neurons compared with other cells of similar size. It was found to be essential for the burst production in these cells. IcAMP, on the other hand, might be involved in the presynaptic facilitatory action of cAMP, which as yet was attributed solely to a reduction of a K+ conductance.     

A novel calcium-sensing domain in the BK channel.

The high-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel (mSlo) plays a vital role in regulating calcium entry in many cell types. mSlo channels behave like voltage-dependent channels, but their voltage range of activity is set by intracellular free calcium. The mSlo subunit has two parts: a "core" resembling a subunit from a voltage-dependent K+ channel, and an appended "tail" that plays a role in calcium sensing. Here we present evidence for a site on the tail that interacts with calcium. This site, the "calcium bowl," is a novel calcium-binding motif that includes a string of conserved aspartate residues. Mutations of the calcium bowl fall into two categories: 1) those that shift the position of the G-V relation a similar amount at all [Ca2+], and 2) those that shift the position of the G-V relation only at low [Ca2+]. None of these mutants alters the slope of the G-V curve. These mutant phenotypes are apparent in calcium ion, but not in cadmium ion, where mutant and wild type are indistinguishable. This suggests that the calcium bowl is sensitive to calcium ion, but insensitive to cadmium ion. The presence and independence of a second calcium-binding site is inferred because channels still respond to increasing levels of [Ca2+] or [Cd2+], even when the calcium bowl is mutationally deleted. Thus a low level of activation in the absence of divalent cations is identical in mutant and wild-type channels, possibly because of activation of this second Ca2+-binding site.     

Localization and heterogeneity of agonist-induced changes in cytosolic calcium concentration in single bovine adrenal chromaffin cells from video imaging of fura-2.

Temporal and spatial changes in the concentration of cytosolic free calcium ([Ca2+]i) in response to a variety of secretagogues have been examined in adrenal chromaffin cells using digital video imaging of fura-2-loaded cells. Depolarization of the cells with high K+ or challenge with nicotine resulted in a rapid and transient elevation of [Ca2+]i beneath the plasma membrane consistent with Ca2+ entry through channels. This was followed by a late phase in which [Ca2+]i rose within the cell interior. Agonists that act through mobilization of inositol phosphates produced an elevation in [Ca2+]i that was most marked in an internal region of the cell presumed to be the site of IP3-sensitive stores. When the same cells were challenged with nicotine or high K+, to trigger Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent channels, the rise in [Ca2+]i was most prominent in the same localized region of the cells. These results suggest that Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent channels results in release of Ca2+ from internal stores and that the bulk of the measured rise in [Ca2+]i is not close to the exocytotic sites on the plasma membrane. Analysis of the time courses of changes in [Ca2+]i in response to bradykinin, angiotensin II and muscarinic agonists showed that these agonists produced highly heterogeneous responses in the cell population. This heterogeneity was most marked with muscarinic agonists which in some cells elicited oscillatory changes in [Ca2+]i. Such heterogeneous changes in [Ca2+]i were relatively ineffective in eliciting catecholamine secretion from chromaffin cells. A single large Ca2+ transient, with a component of the rise in [Ca2+]i occurring beneath the plasma membrane, may be the most potent signal for secretion.     

Effects of extracellular ATP on ion transport systems and [Ca2+]i in rat parotid acinar cells. Comparison with the muscarinic agonist carbachol

The effects of extracellular ATP on ion fluxes and the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) were examined using a suspension of rat parotid acinar cells and were contrasted with the effects of the muscarinic agonist carbachol. Although ATP and carbachol both rapidly increased [Ca2+]i about threefold above the resting level (200-250 nM), the effect of ATP was due primarily to an influx of Ca2+ across the plasma membrane, while the initial response to carbachol was due to a release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Within 10 s, ATP (1 mM) and carbachol (20 microM) reduced the cellular Cl- content by 39-50% and cell volume by 15-25%. Both stimuli reduced the cytosolic K+ content by 57-65%, but there were marked differences in the rate and pattern of net K+ movement as well as the effects of K+ channel inhibitors on the effluxes initiated by the two stimuli. The maximum rate of the ATP-stimulated K+ efflux (approximately 2,200 nmol K+/mg protein per min) was about two-thirds that of the carbachol-initiated efflux rate, and was reduced by approximately 30% (vs. 60% for the carbachol-stimulated K+ efflux) by TEA (tetraethylammonium), an inhibitor of the large conductance (BK) K+ channel. Charybdotoxin, another K+ channel blocker, was markedly more effective than TEA on the effects of both agonists, and reduced the rate of K+ efflux initiated by both ATP and carbachol by approximately 80%. The removal of extracellular Ca2+ reduced the ATP- and the carbachol-stimulated rates of K+ efflux by 55 and 17%, respectively. The rate of K+ efflux initiated by either agonist was reduced by 78-95% in cells that were loaded with BAPTA to slow the elevation of [Ca2+]i. These results indicated that ATP and carbachol stimulated the efflux of K+ through multiple types of K(+)-permeable channels, and demonstrated that the relative proportion of efflux through the different pathways was different for the two stimuli. ATP and carbachol also stimulated the rapid entry of Na+ into the parotid cell, and elevated the intracellular Na+ content to 4.4 and 2.6 times the normal level, respectively. The rate of Na+ entry through Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl- cotransport and Na(+)-H+ exchange was similar whether stimulated by ATP, carbachol, or ionomycin, and uptake through these two carrier-mediated transporters accounted for 50% of the ATP-promoted Na+ influx. The remainder may be due to a nonselective cation channel and an ATP-gated cation channel that is also permeable to Ca2+.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Extracellular potassium rapidly inhibits axonal transport of particles in cultured mouse dorsal root ganglion neurites

Changes in extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) modulate a variety of neuronal functions. However, whether axonal transport, which conveys materials to the appropriate destination for morphogenesis and other neuronal functions, depends on the extracellular K+ environment remains unclear. We therefore examined the effects of changes in [K+]o on axonal transport of particles visualized by video-enhanced microscopy in cultured mouse dorsal root gan-glion neurites. Increases in [K+]o (delta[K+]o > or = 2.5 mM) from control concentration (5 mM) inhibited both anterograde and retrograde axonal transport within a few minutes in a concentration-dependent manner. Conversely, removal of extracellular K+ induced the rapid facilitation of transport in both directions. These inhibitory and facilitatory responses were completely blocked by the K+ channel blocker tetraethylammonium (TEA), suggesting that the effect of changes in [K+]o involves the TEA-sensitive K+ channels. Increases in [K+]o provoked membrane depolarization in the absence and presence of TEA. Another depolarizing agent, veratridine, did not produce an effect on axonal transport. These results suggest that the extracellular K+-mediated inhibition of axonal transport does not depend on membrane depolarization. The inhibitory effect of increasing [K+]o on axonal transport was retained in calcium (Ca2+)-free extracellular medium, indicating that the inhibitory effect of extracellular K+ does not result from Ca2+ influx through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. In chloride (CI-)-free medium, increasing [K+]o failed to inhibit axonal transport, implying that the extracellular K+-mediated inhibition of axonal transport may be due to an increase in intracellular Cl- concentration associated with increases in the net inward movement of K+ and CI- across the membrane. Our results suggest that the extracellular K+ environment is involved in the rapid modulation of axonal transport of particles in dorsal root ganglion neurites.     

Alpha- and beta-adrenergic mediation of changes in metabolism and Na/K exchange in rat brown fat

Double- and triple-barreled ion-sensitive microelectrodes were used to measure changes in extracellular K+ and Na+ concentrations ([K+]o, [Na+]o) in brown fat. Redox states of different respiratory enzymes were measured simultaneously in order to correlate ion movements with metabolic activity. Trains of stimuli applied to the efferent nerves evoked two distinct increases in [K+]o. A first, small, rapid increase occurred within 10 s and accompanied a first, rapid membrane depolarization. A second, slow increase of [K+]o occurred several minutes after stimulation and accompanied a second, slow depolarization. A few seconds after stimulation onset, while the membrane was repolarizing and shifts in redox states indicated increases in lipolysis and respiration, [K+]o decreased. The [K+]o decrease was accompanied by an increase in [Na+]o, and could be partly blocked by ouabain. Phentolamine, an alpha-antagonist that blocks the first depolarization, also blocked the first, rapid [K+]o increase and part of the subsequent decrease. Propranolol, a beta-antagonist, had little effect on the first depolarization and the first increase in [K+]o, but blocked part of the subsequent [K+]o decrease and the second, slow [K+]o increase. The changes in [K+]o were almost completely abolished in the presence of both antagonists. It is concluded that brown adipocytes take up K+ and simultaneously lose Na+ in response to the interaction of noradrenaline with alpha- and beta-receptors, and this indicates a very early stimulation of the Na+ pump.     

Changes in the potassium ion concentration in the extracellular space of rat cerebral cortex during the arousal reaction.

The integrative activity of K+ ions in the CNS was studied in urethane-anaesthetized rats. Changes in the potassium ion concentration in the extracellular space ([K+]e) of the cerebral cortex were studied by means of ion-selective K+ microelectrodes introduced into the brain with an implanted micro-drive allowing measurement in the immobilized animal. EEG desynchronizations evoked by various arousal stimuli or of spontaneous origin were accompanied by a small, but definitely measurable and reliably reproducible [K+]e increment. In arousal reactions evoked by nociceptive stimuli and ammonia fumes, [K+]e rose from a resting value of 3 mM by a mean 0.31 +/- 0.04 mM and 0.61 +/- 0.15 mM respectively. The mean duration of the increase was 37 and 305 sec and the mean duration of corresponding EEG desynchronization 47 and 48 sec; the amplitude of the [K+]e change lagged 15 and 39 sec behind maximum EEG desynchronization. Periodic spontaneous desynchronizations lasting 123 sec, which were evidently associated with the sleep cycle and were accompanied by a [K+]e increment of 0.4 +/- 0.04 mM, occurred in two rats. Repeated nociceptive stimuli led to the elaboration of a conditioned arousal reaction manifested in a [K+]e increment prior to their application. [K+]e changes in arousal reactions were found to be a more sensitive index of the general activity of the neuronal population than DC potential changes.     

The role of K+ in the regulation of the increase in intracellular Ca2+ mediated by the T lymphocyte antigen receptor

The regulation of the increase in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) occurring in cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs) upon their interaction with antigen was examined. This [Ca2+]i increase and lytic function were insensitive to verapamil, a Ca channel blocker. An antigen-independent increase in [Ca2+]i was not induced by depolarization of CTLs with excess extracellular K+, suggesting that Ca2+ influx is not mediated by the ubiquitous voltage-gated Ca channel. The antigen-induced [Ca2+]i increase was inhibited by prior membrane hyperpolarization with valinomycin. Hyperpolarization occurred under normal circumstances in CTLs exposed to antigen-receptor-specific antibodies. This potential change was Ca2+-dependent and inhibited by K channel blockade. Conversely, K channel blockade augmented the antigen-specific [Ca2+]i increase while markedly decreasing the K+ efflux associated with CTL lytic function. Therefore, either membrane potential or intracellular K+ regulates the antigen-specific [Ca2+]i increase in CTLs.     

Alleviation of rapid, futile ammonium cycling at the plasma membrane by potassium reveals K+-sensitive and -insensitive components of NH4+ transport

Futile plasma membrane cycling of ammonium (NH4+) is characteristic of low-affinity NH4+ transport, and has been proposed to be a critical factor in NH4+ toxicity. Using unidirectional flux analysis with the positron-emitting tracer 13N in intact seedlings of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), it is shown that rapid, futile NH4+ cycling is alleviated by elevated K+ supply, and that low-affinity NH4+ transport is mediated by a K+-sensitive component, and by a second component that is independent of K+. At low external [K+] (0.1 mM), NH4+ influx (at an external [NH4+] of 10 mM) of 92 micromol g(-1) h(-1) was observed, with an efflux:influx ratio of 0.75, indicative of rapid, futile NH4+ cycling. Elevating K+ supply into the low-affinity K+ transport range (1.5-40 mM) reduced both influx and efflux of NH4+ by as much as 75%, and substantially reduced the efflux:influx ratio. The reduction of NH4+ fluxes was achieved rapidly upon exposure to elevated K+, within 1 min for influx and within 5 min for efflux. The channel inhibitor La3+ decreased high-capacity NH4+ influx only at low K+ concentrations, suggesting that the K+-sensitive component of NH4+ influx may be mediated by non-selective cation channels. Using respiratory measurements and current models of ion flux energetics, the energy cost of concomitant NH4+ and K+ transport at the root plasma membrane, and its consequences for plant growth are discussed. The study presents the first demonstration of the parallel operation of K+-sensitive and -insensitive NH4+ flux mechanisms in plants.     

Protein phosphorylation activates the guard cell Ca2+ channel and is a prerequisite for gating by abscisic acid

Protein phosphorylation and cytosolic-free [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]i) contribute to signalling cascades evoked by the water-stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA) that lead to stomatal closure in higher-plant leaves. ABA activates an inward-rectifying Ca2+ channel at the plasma membrane of stomatal guard cells, promoting Ca2+ entry by shifting the voltage-sensitivity of the channels. Because many of these effects could be mediated by kinase/phosphatase action at the membrane, we examined a role for protein (de-)phosphorylation in plasma membrane patches from Vicia guard cells. Ca2+ channel activity decayed rapidly in excised patches, and recovered on adding ATP (K1/2, 1.3 +/- 0.7 mm) but not the non-hydrolyzable analog ATPgammaS. ABA activation of the channel required the presence of ATP and like ABA, the 1/2 A-type protein phosphatase antagonists okadaic acid (OA) and calyculin A (CA) enhanced Ca2+ channel activity by increasing the open probability and number of active channels. Neither ATP nor the antagonists affected the mean open lifetime of the channel, suggesting an action through changes in closed lifetime distributions. Like ABA, OA and CA shifted the voltage-sensitivities of the Ca2+ current and [Ca2+]i increases in intact guard cells towards positive voltages. OA and CA also augmented the [Ca2+]i rise evoked by hyperpolarization and delayed its recovery. These results demonstrate a membrane-delimited interaction between 1/2 A-type protein phosphatase(s) and the Ca2+ channel or associated proteins, and they are consistent with a role for protein (de-)phosphorylation in ABA signalling mediated directly through Ca2+ channel gating that leads to [Ca2+]i increases in the guard cells.     

Binding of kappa-conotoxin PVIIA to Shaker K+ channels reveals different K+ and Rb+ occupancies within the ion channel pore

The x-ray structure of the KcsA channel at different [K(+)] and [Rb(+)] provided insight into how K(+) channels might achieve high selectivity and high K(+) transit rates and showed marked differences between the occupancies of the two ions within the ion channel pore. In this study, the binding of kappa-conotoxin PVIIA (kappa-PVIIA) to Shaker K(+) channel in the presence of K(+) and Rb(+) was investigated. It is demonstrated that the complex results obtained were largely rationalized by differences in selectivity filter occupancy of this 6TM channels as predicted from the structural work on KcsA. kappa-PVIIA inhibition of the Shaker K(+) channel differs in the closed and open state. When K(+) is the only permeant ion, increasing extracellular [K(+)] decreases kappa-PVIIA affinity for closed channels by decreasing the "on" binding rate, but has no effect on the block of open channels, which is influenced only by the intracellular [K(+)]. In contrast, extracellular [Rb(+)] affects both closed- and open-channel binding. As extracellular [Rb(+)] increases, (a) binding to the closed channel is slightly destabilized and acquires faster kinetics, and (b) open channel block is also destabilized and the lowest block seems to occur when the pore is likely filled only by Rb(+). These results suggest that the nature of the permeant ions determines both the occupancy and the location of the pore site from which they interact with kappa-PVIIA binding. Thus, our results suggest that the permeant ion(s) within a channel pore can determine its functional and pharmacological properties.     

Stimulation-evoked changes in extracellular pH, calcium and potassium activity in the frog spinal cord

Double-barrel ion-sensitive microelectrodes were used to measure activity-related changes in extracellular pH (pHe), potassium and calcium concentration ([K+]e and [Ca2+]e) in the spinal dorsal horns of frogs. Repetitive stimulation (30-100 Hz) of the dorsal root evoked transient acidification in the lower dorsal horn by 0.25 pH units, which was accompanied by an increase in [K+]e by 4-5 mmol/l and a decrease in [Ca2+]e by 0.5 mmol/l. The pHe changes were found to have a typical depth profile and increased with the stimulation frequency, intensity and duration. The maximum of pHe changes was reached in 25-30 s of stimulation, and when stimulation continued further no greater pHe changes were achieved. Similarly as the K+ and Ca2+ transients, the pHe reached a ceiling level, which was 0.2-0.25 pH units more acid than the pH of the Ringer solution. The poststimulation K+ undershoot below the resting K+ level (3 mmol/l) was accompanied by an alkaline shift before the original pH base line. The rise time of the pHe changes was slower than that of [K+]e and [Ca2+]e changes. However, the redistribution of all the ionic changes had a similar time course. The clearance of changes in [K+]e and pHe was slowed by ouabain. The depression of the acid shift required higher concentrations of ouabain than the depression of the alkaline shifts. Acetazolamide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, depressed the acid and enhanced the alkaline shift. Superfusion of the cord with elevated [K+]e was accompanied by a prompt and progressive acid shift, the lowering of [K+]e by an alkaline shift. The stimulus-evoked K+ increase and acid shift were depressed during the elevated [K+]e, while the alkaline shift was enhanced. Spontaneous elevations of [K+]e were accompanied by acid shifts of a similar time course. The results are discussed in terms of stimulus-evoked changes in extracellular strong ion differences [SID]e, and of their possible physiological significance.     

The ATP-sensitive potassium channel in pancreatic B-cells is inhibited in physiological bicarbonate buffer

The effects of bicarbonate buffer (HCO3-/CO2) on the activity of the two K+ channels proposed by some to control the pancreatic B-cell membrane response to glucose were studied. Single K+-channel records from membrane patches of cultured B-cells dissociated from adult rat islets exposed to a glucose- and bicarbonate-free medium (Na-Hepes in place of bicarbonate) exhibit the activity of both the ATP-sensitive as well as the [Ca2+]i-activated K+ channels. However, in the presence of bicarbonate-buffered Krebs solution, the activity of the ATP-sensitive K+ channel is inhibited leaving the activity of the K+ channel activated by intracellular [Ca2+]i unaffected. In the absence of bicarbonate (Hepes/NaOH in place of bicarbonate), lowering the external pH from 7.4 to 7.0 also has differential effects on the two K+ channels. While the K+ channel sensitive to ATP is inhibited, the K+ channel activated by a rise in [Ca2+]i is not affected. To determine whether the response of the B-cell in culture to bicarbonate is also present when the B-cell is functioning within the islet syncytium, the effects of bicarbonate removal on membrane potential of B-cells from intact mouse islets were compared. These studies showed that glucose-evoked electrical activity is also blocked in bicarbonate-free Krebs solution. Furthermore, in the absence of bicarbonate and presence of glucose (11 mM), electrical activity was recovered by lowering the pHo from 7.4 to 7.0. The ATP-sensitive K+-channel activity is greatly reduced by physiologically buffered solutions in pancreatic B-cells in culture. The most likely explanation for the bicarbonate effects is that they are mediated by cytosolic pH changes. Removal of bicarbonate (keeping the external pH at 7.4 with Hepes/NaOH as buffer) would increase the pHi. Since the activity of the [Ca2+]i-dependent K+ channels is not affected by the removal of the bicarbonate buffer, our patch-clamp data in cultured B-cells indicate an involvement of [Ca2+]i-activated K+ channels in the control of the membrane potential. For the B-cell in the islet, we propose that the burst pattern of electrical activity (Ca2+ entry) is controlled, at least in part, by the [Ca2+]i-activated K+ channel.     

External K+ modulates the activity of the Arabidopsis potassium channel SKOR via an unusual mechanism

Plant outward-rectifying K+ channels mediate K+ efflux from guard cells during stomatal closure and from root cells into the xylem for root-shoot allocation of potassium (K). Intriguingly, the gating of these channels depends on the extracellular K+ concentration, although the ions carrying the current are derived from inside the cell. This K+ dependence confers a sensitivity to the extracellular K+ concentration ([K+]) that ensures that the channels mediate K+ efflux only, regardless of the [K+] prevailing outside. We investigated the mechanism of K+-dependent gating of the K+ channel SKOR of Arabidopsis by site-directed mutagenesis. Mutations affecting the intrinsic K+ dependence of gating were found to cluster in the pore and within the sixth transmembrane helix (S6), identifying an 'S6 gating domain' deep within the membrane. Mapping the SKOR sequence to the crystal structure of the voltage-dependent K+ channel KvAP from Aeropyrum pernix suggested interaction between the S6 gating domain and the base of the pore helix, a prediction supported by mutations at this site. These results offer a unique insight into the molecular basis for a physiologically important K+-sensory process in plants.     

Potassium and the photoreceptor-dependent pigment epithelial hyperpolarization

Light-evoked changes in pigment epithelial cell membrane potentials and retinal extracellular potassium ion concentration, [K+]0, were measured in an in vitro frog retina-pigment epithelium-choroid preparation. Light stimuli hyperpolarized the apical membrane of the pigment epithelium. Through an electrical shunt pathway connecting the apical and basal membranes, the basal membrane also hyperpolarized, but to a lesser degree than the apical membrane. This differential hyperpolariation of the two membranes increased the transepithelial potential (TEP). This increase in TEP was shown to be the major voltage source of the c-wave of the electroretinogram (ERG). Direct measurement of [K+]0 in the distal retina, made with K+-specific microelectrodes, showed a light-evoked decrease in [K+]0 having an identical time course to the apical hyperpolarization. There was a linear relationship between the light-evoked change in TEP and the logarithm of [K+]0. This exact relationship was also found when the apical membrane was perfused directly with solutions of varying [K+]0. The change in TEP associated with the ERC c-wave, therefore, was explained solely by the response of the pigment epithelium to the light-evoked decrease in [K+]0 in the distal retina.