Genetic characterization of the 44D-45B region of the Drosophila melanogaster genome based on an F2 lethal screen

We have performed an F₂ genetic screen to identify lethal mutations that map to the 44D-45B region of the Drosophila melanogaster genome. By screening 8500 mutagenized chromosomes for lethality over Df(2R)Np3, a deficiency which encompasses nearly 1% of the D. melanogaster euchromatic genome, we recovered 125 lines with lethal mutations that represent 38 complementation groups. The lethal mutations have been mapped to deficiencies that span the 44D-45B region, producing an approximate map position for each complementation group. Lethal mutations were analyzed to determine the phase of development at which lethality occurred. In addition, we have linked some of the complementation groups to P element-induced lethals that map to 44D-45B, thus possibly providing new alleles of a previously tagged gene. Some of the complementation groups represent potentially novel alleles of previously identified genes that map to the region. Several genes have been mapped by molecular means to the 44D-45B region, but do not have any reported mutant alleles. This screen may have uncovered mutant alleles of these genes. The results of complementation tests with previously identified genes in 44D-45B suggests that over half of the complementation groups identified in this screen may be novel. Received: 13 July 1999 / Accepted: 4 November 1999     

Genetic and bioinformatic analysis of 41C and the 2R heterochromatin of Drosophila melanogaster: a window on the heterochromatin-euchromatin junction

Genomic sequences provide powerful new tools in genetic analysis, making it possible to combine classical genetics with genomics to characterize the genes in a particular chromosome region. These approaches have been applied successfully to the euchromatin, but analysis of the heterochromatin has lagged somewhat behind. We describe a combined genetic and bioinformatics approach to the base of the right arm of the Drosophila melanogaster second chromosome, at the boundary between pericentric heterochromatin and euchromatin. We used resources provided by the genome project to derive a physical map of the region, examine gene density, and estimate the number of potential genes. We also carried out a large-scale genetic screen for lethal mutations in the region. We identified new alleles of the known essential genes and also identified mutations in 21 novel loci. Fourteen complementation groups map proximal to the assembled sequence. We used PCR to map the endpoints of several deficiencies and used the same set of deficiencies to order the essential genes, correlating the genetic and physical map. This allowed us to assign two of the complementation groups to particular "computed/curated genes" (CGs), one of which is Nipped-A, which our evidence suggests encodes Drosophila Tra1/TRRAP.     

Genetic and Molecular Mapping of Chromosome Region 85a in Drosophila Melanogaster

Chromosome region 85A contains at least 12 genetic complementation groups, including the genes dhod, pink and hunchback. In order to better understand the organization of this chromosomal segment and to permit molecular studies of these genes, we have carried out a genetic analysis coupled with a chromosome walk to isolate the DNA containing these genes. Complementation tests with chromosomal deficiencies permitted unambiguous ordering of most of the complementation groups identified within the 85A region. Recombinant bacteriophage clones were isolated that collectively span over 120 kb of 85A DNA and these were used to produce a molecular map of the region. The breakpoint sites of a number of 85A chromosome rearrangements were localized on the molecular map, thereby delimiting regions of the DNA that contain the various genetic complementation groups.     

Functional genomic analysis of the 61D-61F region of the third chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster.

Assigning functional significance to completed genome sequences is one of the next challenges in biological science. Conventional genetic tools such as deficiency chromosomes help assign essential complementation groups to their corresponding genes. We describe an F2 genetic screen to identify lethal mutations within cytogenetic region 61D-61F of the third chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster. One hundred sixteen mutations were identified by their failure to complement both Df(3L)bab-PG and Df(3L)3C7. These alleles were assigned to 14 complementation groups and 9 deficiency intervals. Complementation groups were ordered using existing deficiencies, as well as new deficiencies generated in this study. With the aid of the genomic sequence, genetic and physical maps in the region were correlated by use of PCR to localize the breakpoints of deficiencies within a 268-kb genomic contig (GenBank accession No. AC005847). Six essential complementation groups were assigned to specific genes, including genes encoding a porphobilinogen deaminase and a Sac1-like protein.     

A Genetic and Molecular Analysis of the 46c Chromosomal Region Surrounding the Fmrfamide Neuropeptide Gene in Drosophila Melanogaster

We have analyzed the FMRFamide neuropeptide gene region of Drosophila melanogaster. This gene maps to the 46C region of chromosome 2R; this interval previously was not well characterized. For this genetic and molecular analysis, we have used X-ray mutagenesis, EMS mutagenesis, and the recently reported local P element transposition method. We identified four overlapping deletions, two of which have proximal breakpoints that define a 50-60-kb region surrounding the FMRFamide gene in 46C. To this small region, we mapped three lethal complementation groups; 10 additional lethal complementation groups were mapped to more distal regions of 46CD. One of these groups corresponds to even-skipped, the other 12 are previously unidentified. Using various lines of evidence we excluded the possibility that FMRFamide corresponds to any of the three lethal complementation groups mapping to its immediate 50-60-kb vicinity. The positions of two of the three lethal complementation groups were identified with P elements using a local transposition scheme. The third lethal complementation group was excluded as being FMRFamide mutants by sequence analysis and by immunocytochemistry with proFMRFamide precursor-specific antibodies. This analysis has (1) provided a genetic map of the 46CD chromosomal region and a detailed molecular map of a portion of the 46C region and (2) provided additional evidence of the utility of local transposition for targeting nearby genes.     

Genetic Analysis of Chromosome Region 63 of Drosophila Melanogaster

The salivary chromosome region including cytological division 63 of Drosophila melanogaster was genetically analyzed in order to (1) characterize this previously unstudied region and (2) attempt to isolate mutations in the hsp82 gene. Seven deletions which span this region were isolated, including four which remove the hsp82 gene. A Minute mutation was mapped to this region and this Minute was used to isolate duplications in the 63 region. These duplications map the Minute to 63B8-C1. F2 screens were initiated using deletions which remove the hsp82 gene. Over 15,000 chromosomes were screened, yielding 40 lethal mutations which comprise 14 complementation groups. Several of these mutations map outside the 63 region and appear to give second site interaction with the Minute locus. Four loci, including the Minute gene, are candidates for hsp82 mutations by cytogenetic mapping. These loci were tested for complementation with a P element carrying the hsp82 gene. However, none of the mutations was rescued.     

Vital Genes That Flank Sex-Lethal, an X-Linked Sex-Determining Gene of DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

The X-chromosome:autosome balance in D. melanogaster appears to control both sex determination and dosage compensation through effects on a maternally influenced sex-linked gene called Sex-lethal (Sxl; 1-19.2). To facilitate molecular and genetic analysis of Sxl, we attempted to determine the locations of all ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS)-mutable genes vital to both sexes in the region between 6E1 and 7B1. This area includes approximately 1 cM of the genetic map on each side of Sxl and was reported by C. B. Bridges to contain 26 salivary gland polytene chromosome bands. The region appears rather sparsely populated with genes vital to both sexes, since the 122 recessive lethal mutations we recovered fell into only nine complementation groups. From one to 38 alleles of each gene were recovered. There was a preponderance of embryonic lethals in this area, although the lethal periods of loss-of-function mutations included larval, pupal and adult stages as well. Since the screen required that mutations be recessive and lethal to males, our failure to recover new Sxl alleles was the result expected for a gene with a female-specific function. An attempt was made to identify recessive male-specific lethals in this region, but none were found. Precise map positions were determined for eight of the nine vital genes. An interesting feature of the map is the location of Sxl in the middle of a 0.6- to 0.7-cM interval that appears to be devoid of genes vital to both sexes. The genetic location was determined of breakpoints near Sxl for all available chromosome rearrangements. Sxl is most likely located just to the left of band 7A1. We determined the relationship of our EMS-induced mutations in these nine genes to alleles induced by others. From this we conclude that the various genes appear to differ significantly from each other in their relative sensitivity to mutation by EMS vs. X rays.     

Lethal Mutations Flanking the 68c Glue Gene Cluster on Chromosome 3 of DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

We have conducted a genetic analysis of the region flanking the 68C glue gene cluster in Drosophila melanogaster by isolating lethal and semilethal mutations uncovered by deficiencies which span this region. Three different mutagens were used: ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), ethyl nitrosourea (ENU) and diepoxybutane (DEB). In the region from 68A3 to 68C11, 64 lethal, semilethal, and visible mutations were recovered. These include alleles of 13 new lethal complementation groups, as well as new alleles of rotated, low xanthine dehydrogenase, lethal(3)517 and lethal(3)B76. Six new visible mutations from within this region were recovered on the basis of their reduced viability; all proved to be semiviable alleles of lethal complementation groups. No significant differences were observed in the distributions of lethals recovered using the three different mutagens. Each lethal was mapped on the basis of complementation with overlapping deficiencies; mutations that mapped within the same interval were tested for complementation, and the relative order of the lethal groups within each interval was determined by recombination. The cytological distribution of genes within the 68A3-68C11 region is not uniform: the region from 68A2,3 to 68B1,3 (seven to ten polytene chromosome bands) contains at least 13 lethal complementation groups and the mutation low xanthine dehydrogenase; the adjoining region from 68B1,3 to 68C5,6 (six to nine bands) includes the 68C glue gene cluster, but no known lethal or visible complementation groups; and the interval from 68C5,6 to 68C10,11 (three to five bands) contains at least three lethal complementation groups and the visible mutation rotated. The developmental stage at which lethality is observed was determined for a representative allele from each lethal complementation group.     

The Unc-22(iv) Region of Caenorhabditis Elegans: Genetic Analysis of Lethal Mutations

The organization of essential genes in the unc-22 region, defined by the deficiency sDf2 on linkage group IV, has been studied. Using the balancer nT1 (IV;V), which suppresses recombination over 49 map units, 294 lethal mutations on LGIV(right) and LGV(left) were recovered using EMS mutagenesis. Twenty-six of these mutations fell into the unc-22 region. Together with previously isolated lethal mutations, there is now a total of 63 lethal mutations which fall into 31 complementation groups. Mutations were positioned on the map using eight overlapping deficiencies in addition to sDf2. The lethal alleles and deficiencies in the unc-22 region were characterized with respect to their terminal phenotypes. Mapping of these lethal mutations shows that sDf2 deletes a minimum of 1.8 map units and a maximum of 2.5 map units. A minimum estimate of essential gene number for the region using a truncated Poisson calculation is 48. The data indicate a minimum estimate of approximately 3500 essential genes in the Caenorhabditis elegans genome.     

Genetic and molecular analysis of region 88E9;88F2 in Drosophila melanogaster, including the ear gene related to human factors involved in lineage-specific leukemias

We identified and characterized the Drosophila gene ear (ENL/AF9-related), which is closely related to mammalian genes that have been implicated in the onset of acute lymphoblastic and myelogenous leukemias when their products are fused as chimeras with those of human HRX, a homolog of Drosophila trithorax. The ear gene product is present in all early embryonic cells, but becomes restricted to specific tissues in late embryogenesis. We mapped the ear gene to cytological region 88E11-13, near easter, and showed that it is deleted by Df(3R)ea(5022rx1), a small, cytologically invisible deletion. Annotation of the completed Drosophila genome sequence suggests that this region might contain as many as 26 genes, most of which, including ear, are not represented by mutant alleles. We carried out a large-scale noncomplementation screen using Df(3R)ea(5022rx1) and chemical (EMS) mutagenesis from which we identified seven novel multi-allele recessive lethal complementation groups in this region. An overlapping deficiency, Df(3R)Po(4), allowed us to map several of these groups to either the proximal or the distal regions of Df(3R)ea(5022rx1). One of these complementation groups likely corresponds to the ear gene as judged by map location, terminal phenotype, and reduction of EAR protein levels.     

Co-Localization to Chromosome Bands 99e1-3 of the Drosophila Melanogaster Myosin Light Chain-2 Gene and a Haplo-Insufficient Locus That Affects Flight Behavior

Using overlapping synthetic deficiencies, we find that a haplo-insufficient locus affecting flight behavior and the myosin light chain-2 gene co-map to the Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosome interval 99D9-E1 to 99E2-3. From screening over 9000 EMS-treated chromosomes, we obtained alleles of two complementation groups that map to this same interval. One of these complementation groups lfm(3)99Eb, exhibits dominant flightless behavior; thus, flightless behavior of the deficiency is in all likelihood due to hemizygosity of this single locus. Rescue of flightless behavior by a duplication indicates that the single allele, E38, of the Ifm(3)99Eb complementation group is a hypomorph. Based upon its map position and a reduction in concentration of myosin light chain-2 mRNA in heterozygotes, we propose that Ifm(3)Eb(E38) is a mutant allele of the myosin light chain-2 gene. Our genetic analysis also resulted in the identification of four dominant flightless alleles of an unlinked locus, l(3)nc99Eb, that exhibits dominant lethal synergism with Ifm(3)99Eb.     

Cytogenetic Analysis of Chromosome Region 73ad of Drosophila Melanogaster

The 73AD salivary chromosome region of Drosophila melanogaster was subjected to mutational analysis in order to (1) generate a collection of chromosome breakpoints that would allow a correlation between the genetic, cytological and molecular maps of the region and (2) define the number and gross organization of complementation groups within this interval. Eighteen complementation groups were defined and mapped to the 73A2-73B7 region, which is comprised of 17 polytene bands. These complementation groups include the previously known scarlet (st), transformer (tra) and Dominant temperature-sensitive lethal-5 (DTS-5) genes, as well as 13 new recessive lethal complementation groups and one male and female sterile locus. One of the newly identified lethal complementation groups corresponds to the molecularly identified abl locus, and another gene is defined by mutant alleles that exhibit an interaction with the abl mutants. We also recovered several mutations in the 73C1-D1.2 interval, representing two lethal complementation groups, one new visible mutant, plucked (plk), and a previously known visible, dark body (db). There is no evidence of a complex of sex determination genes in the region near tra.     

Genetic analysis of adenovirus type 2. I. Isolation and genetic characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants.

Temperature-sensitive mutants which replicate normally at 33 C but poorly at 39 C were isolated from nitrosoguanidine- or nitrous acid-mutagenized adenovirus 2 by (i) testing the cytopathic effect or inclusion body-forming capacity of random plaque isolates, or (ii) reduced plaque enlargement upon shifting from 33 to 39 C. Thirty-six mutants were isolated with 33 C/39 C plaque ratios varying from 20 to 10-5. Some of these mutants could be arranged into 13 groups by the complementation test. By means of recombination analysis a provisional linear genetic map was constructed.     

Genetic study of bacteriophage phi81. I. Isolation, study of complementation and preliminary mapping of amber-mutants of bacteriophage phi81]

123 Amber mutants of lambdoid bacteriophage phi81 are isolated and distributed into 19 complementation groups. Deletion mapping made possible to locate 5 gene groups on the genetic map of bacteriophage phi81 and to determine a region of possible location of mm' sticky ends on the prophage genetic map. A gene of phage phi81 is localized, which controls the adsorption specificity, and which functional similarity to a respective gene of phage phi80 is demonstrated.     

Reverse Genetics of Drosophila RNA Polymerase II: Identification and Characterization of Rpii140, the Genomic Locus for the Second-Largest Subunit

We have used a reverse genetics approach to isolate genes encoding two subunits of Drosophila melanogaster RNA polymerase II. RpII18 encodes the 18-kDa subunit and maps cytogenetically to polytene band region 83A. RpII140 encodes the 140-kDa subunit and maps to polytene band region 88A10:B1,2. Focusing on RpII140, we used in situ hybridization to map this gene to a small subinterval defined by the endpoints of a series of deficiencies impinging on the 88A/B region and showed that it does not represent a previously known genetic locus. Two recently defined complementation groups, A5 and Z6, reside in the same subinterval and thus were candidates for the RpII140 locus. Phenotypes of A5 mutants suggested that they affect RNA polymerase II, in that the lethal phase and the interaction with developmental loci such as Ubx resemble those of mutants in the gene for the largest subunit, RpII215. Indeed, we have achieved complete genetic rescue of representative recessive lethal mutations of A5 with a P-element construct containing a 9.1-kb genomic DNA fragment carrying RpII140. Interestingly, the initial construct also rescued lethal alleles in the neighboring complementation group, Z6, revealing that the 9.1-kb insert carries two genes. Deleting coding region sequences of RpII140, however, yielded a transformation vector that failed to rescue A5 alleles but continued to rescue Z6 alleles. These results strongly support the conclusion that the A5 complementation group is equivalent to the genomic RpII140 locus.     

A Genetic Analysis of the Rose-Gespleten Region (68c8-69b5) of Drosophila Melanogaster

We describe a genetic analysis of the region 68C8-69B5 defined by Df(3L)vin-7. We have induced 35 new lethal mutations in this region, which together with 20 existing lethal mutations, visible mutations, genes identified by protein products and one gene deduced from complementation data fall into 37 complementation groups in this 35-band interval. Using existing and newly induced deficiencies we have assigned these to 11 intervals defined by deficiency breakpoints. Those mutations which fell in the same breakpoint interval as the Lsp-2 gene, which codes for the abundant larval serum protein 2, were the subject of detailed study. None was rescued by the active Lsp-2 gene transformed on to chromosome II and we conclude that, as yet, we have no lethal mutations of Lsp-2.     

Genetic Analysis of the Antennapedia Gene Complex (Ant-C) and Adjacent Chromosomal Regions of DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER. II. Polytene Chromosome Segments 84A-84B1,2

The existence of a gene complex in the proximal right arm of chromosome 3 of Drosophila melanogaster involved in the development of the head and thorax was originally suggested by the phenotypes of several dominant homoeotic mutations and their revertants. A screen for mutations utilizing Df(3R) Antp^Ns+R17 (proximally broken in salivary region 84B1,2) yielded, among 102 recovered mutations, 17 localized by deficiency mapping to the putative homoeotic cluster. These fell into four complementation groups, two of which were characterized by homoeotic phenotypes. To explore the limits of the Antennapedia gene complex (ANT-C) more proximally, a second screen has been undertaken utilizing Df(3R)Scr, a deficiency of 84A1–B1,2.—Of 2832 chromosomes screened, 21 bearing alterations localized to polytene interval 84A–84B1,2 have been recovered. Sixteen are recessive lethals, and five showing reduced viability display a visible phenotype in surviving individuals. Complementation and phenotypic analyses revealed four complementation groups proximal to those identified in the previous screen, including two new alleles of the recessive homoeotic mutation, proboscipedia (pb). Ten of the new mutations correspond to complementation groups defined previously in the Df(3R)Antp^Ns+R17 screen four to the EbR11 group, two to the Scr group and four to the Antp group.—On the basis of the phenotypes of the 39 mutations localized to this region, plus their interactions with extant homoeotic mutations, we postulate that there are at least five functional sites comprising the ANT-C. Three have been demonstrated to be homoeotic in nature. The specific homoeotic transformations thus far observed suggest that these loci are critical for normal development of adult labial, maxillary and thoracic structures.     

Fine-structure genetic map of the cysB locus in Salmonella typhimurium.

A genetic map of the cysB region of the Salmonella typhimurium chromosome was constructed using bacteriophage P22-mediated transduction. Strains bearing delta (supX cysB) mutations were employed to divide this regulatory locus into 12 segments containing a total of 39 single-site mutations. Twenty-five of these single-site mutations were further ordered by reciprocal three-point crosses. The results do not support the concept of multiple cistrons at cysB and suggest that the abortive transductants previously observed in crosses between certain cysB mutants were due to intracistronic complementation. The prototrophic cys-1352 mutation, which causes the constitutive expression of the cysteine biosynthetic enzymes, was found to lie within the cysB region itself. It is bracketed by mutations, which lead to an inability to derepress for these enzymes and result in auxotrophy for cysteine.