种群趋势指数的方差近似估计式及其应用

根据吴惠龙等（1986）发表的稻纵卷叶螟 Cnaphalocrocis medinalis 的生命表及 Watt 种群趋势指数数学模型,在delta-方法的基础上,本文提出了一种种群趋势指数方差的近似估计法,并应用于评价稻螟赤眼蜂Trichogramma japonicum Ashmead 及化学杀虫剂（甲六粉）对稻纵卷叶螟的控制作用。根据中心极限定律,当样本足够大时,种群趋势指数近似于正态分布。根据近似方差估计量以及 Z-检验方法,取得以下结论：放蜂区明显优于对照区,因其种群趋势指数取值较小,相应的 P 值为 0.0111,该区也明显优于化学杀虫剂处理区,相应的 P 值为 0.0036。杀虫剂处理区差于对照区,因其种群趋势指数值较大（0.3035）,但这种差异并未达到显著水平,P 值为 0.2236。虽然本文的结论近似于吴惠龙等（1986）单纯依据种群趋势指数所得到的结果,但本文的结论更具统计意义,更加可靠。     

Illiberis (Primilliberis) rotundata Jordan (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae: Procridinae) male sex attractant: Optimization and use for seasonal monitoring

Illiberis (Primilliberis) rotundata Jordan, 1907 (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae) is an orchard pest distributed in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu in Japan and also in China, Korea, Mongolia and Russia (south‐eastern Siberia and Far East). For optimizing a known sex attractant lure containing sex pheromone components of the species (2R)‐butyl (7Z)‐dodecenoate and (2R)‐butyl (9Z)‐tetradecenoate, field work was organized in three cherry tree plots in Naruto, Tokushima in 2009 and 2010. As a result, the mixture of (2R)‐butyl (7Z)‐dodecenoate and (2R)‐butyl (9Z)‐tetradecenoate in a ratio of 30:100–50:100 (130–150 µg, respectively) was found to be the most attractive for the males of this pest. The seasonal flight of I. rotundata in Naruto, Japan as estimated by pheromone traps started at the end of May and lasted up to the end of June with a mass flight at the very end of May to first week of June.     

Insecticide‐mediated behavioral avoidance by bean bug,Riptortus pedestris (Heteroptera: Alydidae)

Bean bug, Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Heteroptera: Alydidae), is an economically important pest of soybean and tree fruit. Behavioral responses of R. pedestris to olfactory cues from insecticide‐treated foliage were assessed in a Y‐tube olfactometer. Ten insecticides were applied to kidney bean plants at the recommended dosage, and then bug avoidance was assessed at 0, 3, 5, 7 and 13 days after treatment (DAT). Each bug was allowed 5 min to choose one of the olfactometer's arms. Even though the degree of avoidance was variable to the insecticides tested, bean bugs significantly avoided the insecticide‐treated leaf. The pyrethroid bifenthrin was the most avoided of the insecticides tested. In all treatments, avoidance decreased as DAT increased. Also, the movement speed was higher to the untreated leaf than to the insecticide‐treated leaf. The degree of avoidance was positively correlated to the vapor pressure of the chemical; this finding implies the interaction of the treated chemicals and plant volatiles may be used as cues for bean bug selection of the host‐plant.     

Optimization and field evaluation of the sex pheromone of Trichophysetis cretacea (Lepidoptera,Crambidae) for pest monitoring

Field studies using the synthetic sex pheromone of Trichophysetis cretacea, a trinary blend of (Z)‐11‐hexadecenyl acetate (Z11‐16:OAc), (Z)‐11‐hexadecenal (Z11‐16:Ald) and (Z)‐11‐hexadecenol (Z11‐16:OH), were performed in Sichuan to determine operational parameters for detection and control, such as dispenser type, blend ratio, dosage, and trap type, height and density. Of three pheromone dispensers tested, grey halo‐butyl isoprene elastomeric septa were significantly more effective than polyvinyl chloride capillary tubing or silicone rubber septa. The ratio of the three components in the blend significantly affected moth catch. In the halo‐butyl isoprene septa, the most effective ratio was 5 : 2 : 1 Z11‐16:OAc:Z11‐16:Ald:Z11‐16:OH. Sticky wing traps caught significantly more moths than water, noctuid moth or cone funnel traps. The most effective height at which wing traps were hung was 20 cm above the jasmine plants. Optimum trap density was 45 traps per hectare. Addition of volatile jasmine compounds did not increase the attractiveness of the sex pheromone. A dosage of 50 μg Z11‐16:OAc per lure was most effective in the autumn weather conditions of Quanwei. These data provide sufficient information to develop effective protocols for using the T. cretacea pheromone to detect and monitor this pest in the jasmine fields.     

Induction of bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) resistance in rice by treatment with acibenzolar-S-methyl

The role of the plant defence activator, acibenzolar‐S‐methyl (ASM), in inducing resistance in rice against bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) was studied. Application of ASM induced resistance in rice to infection by Xoo. When the pathogen was clip‐inoculated to the rice plants, it caused bacterial leaf blight symptoms in the untreated control. However, in the rice plants pretreated with ASM, infection was significantly reduced. Induced systemic resistance was found to persist for up to 3 days in the pretreated rice plants. Increased phenolic content and accumulation of pathogenesis‐related (PR) proteins, viz. chitinase, β‐1,3‐glucanase and thaumatin‐like protein (TLP; PR 5) were observed in rice plants pretreated with ASM followed by inoculation with Xoo. Immunoblot analysis using rice TLP and tobacco chitinase antiserum revealed rapid induction and over‐expression of 25 and 35 kDa TLP and chitinase, respectively, in rice in response to pretreatment with ASM followed by Xoo inoculation. Based on these experiments, it is evident that induction of disease resistance in rice was accelerated following treatment with ASM.     

Monitoring and mechanisms of organophosphate resistance in San Jose scale,Diaspidiotus perniciosus (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

San Jose scale, Diaspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock), is a serious pest in Chilean apple tree orchards, and a number of organophosphate insecticides were used to control them for decades. Recently, control failures with these insecticides were reported and linked to insecticide resistance development. In this study, 40 San Jose scale field populations were collected and their susceptibility to two commonly used organophosphate insecticides, that is chlorpyrifos and methidathion, was assessed. The obtained bioassay data suggest moderate levels of resistance to both insecticides when compared to a reference susceptible strain. The highest resistance ratio (RR) detected for chlorpyrifos and methidathion was 31‐fold and 11‐fold, respectively. The bioassay results suggest the occurrence of a significant cross‐resistance between both compounds. Biochemical measurements revealed a role for esterases in conferring resistance to organophosphates, but not modified acetylcholinesterase. The spatial spread and extend of insecticide resistance were also evaluated. Our result shows that no autocorrelation can be assumed, and then, insecticide resistance is caused by random factors.     

Effects of thiamethoxam and lambda‐cyhalothrin on spermatogenesis of Euschistus heros (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

Euschistus heros (Fabricius, 1798) is one of the most harmful insect pests damaging Brazilian soybean crops and has become a major problem due to its high population density and resistance to insecticides. Currently, there are no data on whether alterations of testicular morphology and chromosomal behavior are associated with the resistance mechanisms related to the action of insecticides. This study integrated analyses of the testicular morphology, meiocyte cell division, and chromosomal structure and behavior in the process of spermatogenesis in E. heros. We compared these features among wild‐caught individuals, insecticide‐susceptible and ‐resistant strains. The resistant strain was established through a selection experiment exposing the bugs to insecticides (thiamethoxam + lambda‐cyhalothrin) for 15 generations. No differences were detected in the examined features among the three groups of experimental individuals: the testis comprised six lobes, with the fifth lobe thinner than the others; the karyotype was 2n = 14 (12 + XY), with no evident changes in chromosomal breakage, rearrangement or behavior in the meiosis; and abundant spermatozoa were observed in all testicular lobes. Thus, any effects of the long‐term (15 generations) experimental selection by exposure to the insecticides were not detected on the male germinal tissue and chromosomes, suggesting the irrelevancy of the examined features to insecticide‐resistance mechanisms in E. heros.     

Proof of concept for a novel insecticide bioassay based on sugar feeding by adult Aedes aegypti (Stegomyia aegypti)

Aedes aegypti L. (Stegomyia aegypti) (Diptera: Culicidae) is the principal vector of dengue and yellow fever viruses in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Disease management is largely based on mosquito control achieved by insecticides applied to interior resting surfaces and through space sprays. Population monitoring to detect insecticide resistance is a significant component of integrated disease management programmes. We developed a bioassay method for assessing insecticide susceptibility based on the feeding activity of mosquitoes on plant sugars. Our prototype sugar‐insecticide feeding bioassay system was composed of inexpensive, disposable components, contained minimal volumes of insecticide, and was compact and highly transportable. Individual mosquitoes were assayed in a plastic cup that contained a sucrose‐permethrin solution. Trypan blue dye was added to create a visual marker in the mosquito's abdomen for ingested sucrose‐permethrin solution. Blue faecal spots provided further evidence of solution ingestion. With the sugar‐insecticide feeding bioassay, the permethrin susceptibility of Ae. aegypti females from two field‐collected strains was characterized by probit analysis of dosage‐response data. The field strains were also tested by forced contact of females with permethrin residues on filter paper. Dosage‐response patterns were similar, indicating that the sugar‐insecticide feeding bioassay had appropriately characterized the permethrin susceptibility of the two strains.     

Evaluation of (Z)-9-tricosene baited targets for control of the housefly (Musca domestica) in outdoor situations

Houseflies (Musca domestica L.) are a major pest species in a variety of outdoor situations, notably on and around livestock farms and landfill used for the disposal of domestic waste. Currently no effective options are available for control of houseflies outdoors, because many populations exhibit at least some resistance to all available synthetic pesticides. (Z)‐9‐tricosene is the only commercially available pheromone for use in lure‐and‐kill approaches to housefly control, and it is widely used in indoor livestock units in combination with sugar/insecticide bait. Here we examine the potential of this approach for use outdoors, on a landfill site. We investigate the efficacy of toxic targets painted with a sugar/insecticide/(Z)‐9‐tricosene mix. The effects of target size and pheromone concentration were examined in two replicate trials, conducted in June and September 2003. As expected, catch consisted largely of males, was consistently higher on larger traps, and generally increased with (Z)‐9‐tricosene concentration even up to very high levels. However, in repeated trials, and despite mass release of marked flies, catch rates appeared to be insufficient to provide adequate control. We suggest that this is probably because (Z)‐9‐tricosene is primarily a short‐range attractant, and fly populations in outdoor situations are generally distributed over a large area. Catch declined rapidly to zero within 2 weeks, indicating that improved formulation or target design is needed to slow the weathering of active ingredients on the targets. It seems unlikely that (Z)‐9‐tricosene is sufficiently attractive to houseflies to provide an effective and economic lure in outdoor situations.     

Potential of the neonicotinoid imidacloprid and the oxadiazine indoxacarb for controlling five coleopteran pests of stored grain

Abstract The potential for using imidacloprid (a neonicotinoid) and indoxacarb (an oxadiazine) as grain protectants was investigated in bioassays against resistant strains of five stored grain beetles. The species investigated were Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (the lesser grain borer), Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (the rice weevil), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (the rust‐red flour beetle), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (the saw tooth flour beetle), and Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (the flat grain beetle). Each of these species has developed resistance to one or more protectants, including organophosphorus insecticides, synthetic pyrethroids and the juvenile hormone analogue methoprene. Mortality and reproduction after a 2‐week exposure of adults to treated wheat depended on species, dose and insecticide. Imidacloprid had no effect on S. oryzae at any dose, but none of the other species produced any live progeny at 10 mg/kg. Indoxacarb had no effect on T. castaneum at any dose, but none of the other species produced any live progeny at 5 mg/kg. The results show that although both imidacloprid and indoxacarb can control at least four of the five key pests tested at doses comparable to those used for organophosphorus protectants, more potent neonicotinoid or oxadiazine insecticides would be needed than either of these to provide broad spectrum protection of stored grain.     

Establishing the role of detoxifying enzymes in field‐evolved resistance to various insecticides in the brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) in South India

The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål), is one of the major pests of rice throughout Asia. Extensive use of insecticides for suppressing N. lugens has resulted in the development of insecticide resistance leading to frequent control failures in the field. The aim of the present study was to evaluate resistance in the field populations of N. lugens from major rice growing states of South India to various insecticides. We also determined the activity of detoxifying enzymes (esterases [ESTs], glutathione S‐transferases [GSTs], and mixed‐function oxidases [MFOs]). Moderate levels of resistance were detected in the field populations to acephate, thiamethoxam and buprofezin (resistance factors 1.05–20.92 fold, 4.52–14.99 fold, and 1.00–18.09 fold, respectively) as compared with susceptible strain while there were low levels of resistance to imidacloprid (resistance factor 1.23–6.70 fold) and complete sensitivity to etofenoprox (resistance factor 1.05–1.66 fold). EST activities in the field populations were 1.06 to 3.09 times higher than the susceptible strain while for GST and MFO the ratios varied from 1.29 to 3.41 and 1.03 to 1.76, respectively. The EST activity was found to be correlated to acephate resistance (r = 0.999, P ≥ 0.001). The high selection pressure of organophosphate, neonicotinoid, and insect growth regulator (IGR) in the field is likely to be contributing for resistance in BPH to multiple insecticides, leading to control failures. The results obtained will be beneficial to IPM recommendations for the use of effective insecticides against BPH.     

Toxicity assessment of insecticides commonly used in rice pest management to the fry of common carp, Cyprinus carpio, a food fish culturable in rice fields

Toxicity of four insecticides commonly used in rice pest management, chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, carbaryl and carbosulfan, to the fry of common carp was assessed through median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) and in vivo inhibition of the brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme at sublethal concentrations. The 96‐h LC₅₀ values for these four insecticides were determined to be 0.008, 26.11, 7.85 and 0.60 mg L^?1 respectively. Exposure of fish to a series of sublethal concentrations (0.5–5% LC₅₀) of each insecticide for 14 days resulted in concentration‐dependent inhibition in AChE activity in comparison with the controls. AChE activity was greatly inhibited in the fish exposed to sublethal concentrations of chlorpyrifos. Upon transfer to insecticide‐free water, AChE activities in fry exposed to 0.5 and 1% LC₅₀ concentrations of carbaryl and carbosulfan were restored to the control level within 7–21 days whereas the fish exposed to chlorpyrifos or dimethoate did not fully recover from the insecticide‐induced anticholinesterase action. Of the four insecticides tested, chlorpyrifos was the most toxic for the fry of common carp. Although dimethoate was least toxic for the fish under acute exposure, the restoration level of normal AChE activity was slower under chronic exposure in comparison with carbaryl and carbosulfan. Hence, the use of carbamates, especially carbaryl, to control insect pests of rice in rice‐cum‐carp culture systems is recommended when considering survival, restoration of the normal AChE activity and stamina of the cultured fish.     

Insecticide resistance in populations of Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

1 Control failures of insecticides used against the tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Brazil led to the investigation of the possible occurrence of resistance of this insect pest to abamectin, cartap, methamidophos and permethrin. 2 The insect populations were collected from seven sites in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. These populations were subjected to concentration–mortality bioassays using insecticide‐impregnated filter papers. 3 We were unable to obtain a single population which provided a susceptibility standard for all insecticides tested. Therefore, the resistance levels were estimated in relation to the most susceptible population to each insecticide. Resistance to abamectin and cartap were observed in all populations when compared with the susceptible standard population, with resistance ratios ranging from 5.2‐ to 9.4‐fold and from 2.2‐ to 21.9‐fold for abamectin and cartap, respectively. Resistance to permethrin was observed in five populations with resistance ratios ranging from 1.9‐ to 6.6‐fold, whereas resistance to methamidophos was observed in four populations with resistance ratios ranging from 2.6‐ to 4.2‐fold. 4 The long period and high frequency of use of these insecticides against this insect pest suggest that the evolution of insecticide resistance on them has been relatively slow. Alternatively, the phenomenon might be widespread among Brazilian populations of T. absoluta making the finding of suitable standard susceptible populations difficult and leading to an underestimation of the insecticide resistance levels in this pest. 5 Higher levels of resistance to abamectin, cartap and permethrin are correlated with greater use of these compounds by growers. This finding suggests that local variation in insecticide use was an important cause of variation in susceptibility.     

Female sex pheromone of Sesamia cretica: chemical and behavioural evidence for a three-component blend

The female‐produced sex pheromone of the Durra stem borer, Sesamia cretica (Lederer) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), had been previously characterized as a 75:25 blend of (Z)‐9‐tetradecenol (Z9‐14:OH) and (Z)‐9‐tetradecenyl acetate (Z9‐14:OAc) based on field trapping experiments. The low attraction of this blend in the field led us to further investigate the sex pheromone of this pest. Coupled gas chromatography with electroantennographic detection (GC‐EAD) analysis of female pheromone gland extracts consistently revealed three EAD‐active compounds. According to their GC retention times, mass spectra, and comparative EAG analyses with authentic standards, two of these compounds were found to be the previously reported components Z9‐14:OH and Z9‐14:OAc, whereas a third compound was identified as (Z)‐11‐hexadecenol (Z11‐16:OH). In wind tunnel experiments, the highest male responses were elicited by ratios of Z9‐14:OH, Z9‐14:OAc, and Z11‐16:OH, ranging from 90:1:9 to 90:5:5. In field tests, the 90:1:9 ratio of the blend loaded onto rubber septum dispensers was significantly more effective than single‐component, two‐component, and any other ratio of the three‐component blend. The greater effectiveness of this blend resulted in a more accurate detection of S. cretica flight activity compared with the previously reported two‐component blend.     

Rice PCR1 influences grain weight and Zn accumulation in grains

Proteins containing a placenta‐specific 8 domain (PLAC8) function as major organ size regulators in Solanum lycopersicum and Zea may, and putative metal ion transporters in Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa and Brassica juncea. However, it is unknown how PLAC8 domain‐containing proteins fulfill such diverse roles. Here, we found that plant cadmium resistance 1 (PCR1) influences both zinc (Zn) accumulation and grain weight in rice. OsPCR1 knockout and knockdown lines produced lighter grains than the wild type, while OsPCR1 overexpression lines produced heavier grains. Furthermore, the grains of OsPCR1 knockdown lines exhibited substantially higher Zn and lower cadmium (Cd) concentrations than the control, as did yeast heterologously expressing OsPCR1. Through sequence analysis, we showed that the amino acid sequence of japonica‐type PCR1 was distinct from that of indica‐type and wild rice accessions. This difference was correlated with distinct Zn‐related phenotypes. Japonica‐type PCR1 had a shorter N‐terminus than did PCR1 in the other rice types, and yeast heterologously expressing japonica‐type PCR1 was more sensitive to Zn than was yeast expressing indica‐type PCR1. Furthermore, japonica‐type grains accumulated less Zn than did indica‐type grains. Our study suggests that rice PCR1 maintains metal ion homeostasis and grain weight and might have been selected for during domestication.     

Host resistance enhances susceptibility of Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to herbal extract of Echinophora platyloba

It has been argued that resistant cultivars may enhance the susceptibility of insect pests to insecticides, and thus can reduce crop production costs by lowering the rate of insecticide application. Here we studied the susceptibility of the cowpea seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), reared on either a susceptible or resistant cultivar of the mung bean (Vigna radiate ), to a herbal extract taken from the prickly parsnip, Echinophora platyloba (Umbelliferae). After selection of a susceptible (Parto) and a resistant (Sahar) cultivar, the median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of the herbal extract was determined as 24.41 and 20.28 μL/250 mL air against beetles reared on susceptible and resistant cultivars, respectively. Rearing on resistant cultivar had a significant effect on biological parameters of C. maculatus regardless of insecticide application. However, herbal extract showed a significant interaction with host resistance in terms of oviposition rate and pre‐adult development time. These results provide evidence that the resistant cultivar increases the susceptibility of C. maculatus to herbal extract. The use of plant resistance in combination with narrow‐spectrum insecticides seems to be of both economic and environmental importance, as it can reduce the costs of crop production and lower the doses of insecticides required for satisfactory pest control.     

Comparison of biological and conventional insecticide treatments for the management of the pineapple fruit borer, Strymon megarus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Costa Rica

Carbaryl is currently one of the most commonly used insecticides for the control of the pineapple fruit borer, Strymon megarus (Godart), in commercial pineapple production. To evaluate more sustainable biological alternatives to conventional insecticides, three microbial and one botanical insecticide were studied. Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and a plant extract from Quassia amara were compared with carbaryl in replicated field trials in Costa Rica during 2005 and 2006. In both years of testing, the untreated control received over 50% fruit damage from S. megarus. Bt and carbaryl provided the highest level of control and the lowest level of fruit damage compared to all other treatments. Based on the results of this study, Bt appears to be an acceptable biological alternative to the conventional insecticide (carbaryl) for control of S. megarus on pineapple. In addition, Bt was the least expensive treatment used in this study.     

Effects of selected insecticides on adults of two parasitoid species of Liriomyza trifolii: Ganaspidium nigrimanus (Figitidae) and Neochrysocharis formosa (Eulophidae)

Abstract Liriomyza trifolii is an important pest of vegetables and ornamental crops around the world. This pest is attacked by many parasitoid species. The principal management tactic used against L. trifolii is insecticide application. Insecticides vary in their effects on parasitoid species and insecticides that have less harmful effects should be preferred for the control of this pest. In this study, novaluron, abamectin, λ‐cyhalothrin and spinetoram were investigated for their lethal effects on adults of Neochrysocharis formosa and Ganaspidium nigrimanus, two important parasitoids of L. trifolii. Three different bioassays were used on adult parasitoids: direct insecticide application, insecticide intake and insecticide residue. Adult parasitoid response to novaluron exhibited the least lethal effects among the bioassays and insecticides tested. Abamectin had significant mortality to both parasitoid species in the direct application and insecticide intake bioassays and mortality were high for G. nigrimanus in the residue bioassay. Spinetoram was the most harmful insecticide to the adult parasitoids in all three bioassays. λ‐cyhalothrin effects varied between the two parasitoids. In the direct application, it was harmful to G. nigrimanus and had no effect on N. formosa. In the insecticide intake bioassay λ‐cyhalothrin had no effect in survival of either species, and in the residue bioassay it reduced parasitoid survival of both species. Potential tolerance of N. formosa to λ‐cyhalothrin is discussed.     

Silicon‐mediated multiple interactions: Simultaneous induction of rice defense and inhibition of larval performance and insecticide tolerance of Chilo suppressalis by sodium silicate

The rice striped stem borer (SSB, Chilo suppressalis) is one of the most destructive pests of rice plants. Si‐mediated rice defense against various pests has been widely reported, and sodium silicate (SS) has been used as an effective source of silicon for application to plants. However, there is quite limited information about the direct effects of Si application on herbivorous insects. SSB larval performance and their insecticide tolerance were examined after they had been reared either on rice plants cultivated in nutrient solution containing 0.5 and 2.0 mM SS or on artificial diets with 0.1% and 0.5% SS. SS amendment in either rice culture medium or artificial diets significantly suppressed the enzymatic activities of acetylcholinesterase, glutathione S‐transferases, and levels of cytochrome P450 protein in the midgut of C. suppressalis larvae. Larvae fed on diets containing SS showed lower insecticide tolerance. Additionally, RNA‐seq analysis showed that SS‐mediated larval insecticide tolerance was closely associated with fatty acid biosynthesis and pyruvate metabolism pathways. Our results suggest that Si not only enhances plant resistance against insect herbivore, but also impairs the insect's capacity to detoxify the insecticides. This should be considered as another important aspect in Si‐mediated plant–insect interaction and may provide a novel approach of pest management.