LPS受体及信号转导研究进展

内毒素脂多糖（LPS）可激活单核／巨噬细胞,产生一系列炎症反应,而LPS跨膜信号转导是引起细胞效应的关键。本文主要综述LPS结合蛋白（LBP）、LPS受体（mCD14、sCD14）以及Toll群受体（TLRs）在LPS激活细胞及信号跨膜传递中的重要作用。推测LPS／LBP与细胞膜CD14结合后,TLRs以及细胞外富含亮氨酸片段的重复序列识别LPS,将LPS的刺激信号跨膜转导,激活NF－kB信号途径导致效应基因的表达。     

鼻咽癌细胞5-8F通过TLR4介导的信号通路对革兰氏阴性细菌脂多糖的反应性研究

鼻咽上皮细胞无时无刻不暴露和接触到共生微生物与病原微生物,机体依靠天然防御系统和抗原识别的适应性免疫反应系统来进行自我保护.慢性感染的重要毒力因素被认为是革兰氏阴性细菌细胞壁的主要成分脂多糖(LPS),对LPS的识别与信号传导是宿主细胞抵御革兰氏阴性细菌的关键.通过流式细胞术、RT-PCR等研究发现,5-8F细胞可与LPS相结合并产生反应,且其受LPS调节的机制是由于5-8F细胞中存在LPS受体分子如CD14、TLR4与MD2等的表达.同时应用免疫荧光、蛋白质印迹、荧光素酶报告系统等研究发现,5-8F细胞可受到LPS的诱导而活化TLR4的下游信号传导通路.5-8F细胞在LPS的诱导下,磷酸化NFκBp65的表达增加,并且使NFκBp65活化迁移至核内.研究还发现,LPS增加TNF-α全长启动子活性,同时LPS可使5-8F细胞中TNF-α的分泌增加,从而介导炎性因子的释放.因此,5-8F细胞可通过与LPS受体分子:CD14、TLR4及MD2与LPS相结合并反应,从而激活TLR4介导的NFκB信号通路,使炎性因子的释放增加,导致鼻咽部的炎症反应诱发鼻咽癌.     

内毒素结合蛋白的研究进展

革兰阴性菌的脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)是引起内毒素休克的重要触发剂.近年来的研究发现,在内毒素血症的发生、发展过程中,内毒素结合蛋白(endotoxin binding protein,EBP)及其受体系统是机体识别和调控内毒素作用的关键机制,内毒素的许多生物学效应可能就是通过其增敏或抑制作用而实现的.本文就内毒素结合蛋白与LPS作用关系的研究进展作一综述.     

TLR4在哺乳动物对脂多糖反应中的作用

Toll信号转导通路在果蝇的发育和天然免疫反应中起重要作用.最近在小鼠进行的定点克隆研究表明Lps位座编码一种Toll样受体TLR4,该受体作为LPS受体复合物的跨膜成分而转导脂多糖(LPS)信号,而其相关蛋白TLR2则在其他病原体微生物介导的细胞反应中起作用.TLR4的发现使我们对LPS信号转导通路的认识前进了一大步.     

TLR4及其作用的研究进展

Toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)因其积极的研究成果而成为近年来广受关注的一种病原体识别受体,TLRs分布相对比较广泛,不但在小肠上皮、呼吸上皮细胞表达,同时也在血管内皮细胞、树突状细胞[1]、大鼠脾及心肌细胞[2]等细胞中表达.研究证实,它属于模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecule pattern,PAMPs)可被其辨别,然后引发一系列的信号转导,TLRs 是备受关注的一种PRRs.Toll样受体4(toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)是TLRs家族中极为重要的成员,是天然免疫系统识别病原微生物的主要受体,在天然免疫反应中扮演着关键性作用.细菌脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)作为一类受体,主要作用是介导信号跨膜转导,尤其对革兰氏阴性菌所引起的感染性炎症起着极为关键的作用.由于近年来对TLR4介导的信号转导及TLR4与疾病的关系研究成为热点,本文就TLR4的信号转导、TLR4与LPS的关系及TLR4信号通路调节进行综述如下.     

Toll样受体抗体抑制脂多糖激活巨噬细胞的吞噬活性

应用脂多糖(LPS)激活巨噬细胞后其吞噬能力大大增强, 以此为模型发现TLR2的多抗能部分抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬金葡萄球菌的能力, 也能部分阻断对U937细胞的吞噬活性. TRAIL或TNFα多克隆抗体同样能起到类似作用. 实验还发现低浓度血清培养亦在一定程度上抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞的吞噬作用. 结果证实TLR2能介导LPS的功能, 而某些血清因子参与了介导LPS的信号转导过程, 提示LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬能力的提高与诱导表达TRAIL等细胞因子有关.     

Toll样受体抗体抑制脂多糖激活巨噬细胞的吞噬活行

应用脂多糖(LPS)激活巨噬细胞后其吞噬能力大大增强,以此为模型发现TLR2的多抗能部分抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬金葡萄球菌的能力,也能部分阻断对U937细胞的吞噬活性.TRAIL或TNFα多克隆抗体同样能起到类似作用.实验还发现低浓度血清培养亦在一定程度上抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞的吞噬作用.结果证实TLR2能介导LPS的功能,而某些血清因子参与了介导LPS的信号转导过程,提示LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬能力的提高与诱导表达TRAIL等细胞因子有关.     

布鲁氏菌脂多糖刺激山羊支气管上皮细胞的全转录组分析

布鲁氏菌(Brucella)的细胞壁成分脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)是布鲁氏菌逃避宿主免疫的主要毒力因子之一,由于LPS具有较低的免疫原性,因而不会激活宿主Toll样受体。本研究采用猪布鲁氏菌S2株(Brucella suis S2,B.suis S2)的LPS刺激山羊(Capra hircus)支气管上皮细胞,通过全转录组测序技术筛选响应B.suis S2 LPS刺激的宿主差异表达基因(differentially expressed genes, DEGs)和差异表达miRNA。通过筛选结果中|log₂ fold change|>1且P<0.05的基因和miRNA,在LPS刺激组和对照组间共产生97个差异基因和3条差异miRNA,其中包括58个上调基因和39个下调基因,3条差异miRNA均为下调。通过基因本体论(gene ontology, GO)注释和京都基因与基因组百科全书(kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes, KEGG)富集发现,DEGs主要富集于ATP代谢、 RAGE受...     

利用荧光共振能量转移技术研究活细胞TLR4与MD-2作用结构域

脂多糖(LPS)的识别和信号转导是宿主发生防御反应的关键,Toll样受体4(TLR4)与髓样分化蛋白-2(MD-2)形成复合物在LPS的识别及其信号转导中发挥了重要作用．研究TLR4与MD-2结合的功能结构域,对于深入了解LPS信号转导机制及其内毒素休克的防治具有重要意义．运用基于强度的三通道荧光共振能量转移技术(FRET)及基因突变和转染技术,研究了活细胞TLR4与MD-2作用的结构域．结果表明：N端Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹缺失使TLR4与MD-2结合能力明显下降;LPS刺激后TLR4聚合迅速增加,而缺失Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹的TLR4不能聚合．上述结果提示,TLR4的Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹不仅是结合MD-2的区域,并且还参与了LPS刺激后TLR4的聚合作用．     

Toll样受体4介导内毒素对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活

为探讨Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)在内毒素(LPS)对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用,以LPS刺激培养的ECV-304细胞为模型,运用RT-PCR和蛋白质印迹技术检测了内皮细胞TLR4的表达及LPS对其表达的影响.同时利用基因转染和抗体阻断方法进一步观察了TLR4在LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用.研究发现,LPS能明显上调内皮细胞TLR4的表达,呈一定的时间和剂量依赖性.转染TLR4的功能突变体和运用抗TLR4单抗能明显抑制LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活.提示TLR4介导了LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活,可能在LPS对内皮细胞激活/损伤效应中具有重要的地位.     

Specific endotoxic lipopolysaccharide-binding receptors on murine splenocytes. III. Binding specificity and characterization.

In previously published studies, we employed a photoreactive radioiodinated derivative of LPS from Escherichia coli 0111:B4 to identify and characterize a membrane-localized specific LPS binding protein of approximately 80-kDa molecular mass. Our more recent studies demonstrating that mAb with specificity for this 80-kDa protein will act as an agonist in mediating macrophage activation have established that this protein serves as a specific receptor for LPS. In the experiments reported here, we have more accurately determined the apparent molecular mass of this protein to be 73 kDa (p73). We have also extended the sources of LPS-derivatized photo-cross-linking preparations (including Re-LPS) to determine generality of LPS binding to this receptor. Binding to the p73 LPS receptor is demonstrated with all of the LPS derivatives synthesized in our laboratory, as well as probes synthesized by other investigators. Binding of S-LPS is readily inhibited by Re chemotype LPS, and we have shown that this competitive inhibition is most likely not the result of formation of LPS aggregates. These results confirm and extend our earlier studies suggesting that the binding of LPS to the p73 receptor is lipid A specific. We further demonstrate that, in contrast to results published in a recent report, the p73 LPS receptor has no significant binding specificity for a variety peptidoglycan polymer preparations. Finally, we show that this LPS receptor can be detected on murine fibroblast, macrophage, and mastocytoma cell lines. Differences have been observed in the level of expression of LPS receptors on the various cell lines studied.     

Toll receptors,CD14, and macrophage activation and deactivation by LPS

This review will focus on the molecular mechanisms of macrophage activation and desensitization by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The most recent advances in the understanding of the function of the LPS receptor complex and its role in the development of the septic shock syndrome and endotoxin tolerance will be discussed.     

Therapeutic targeting of innate immunity with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonists

Early recognition of invading bacteria by the innate immune system has a crucial function in antibacterial defense by triggering inflammatory responses that prevent the spread of infection and suppress bacterial growth. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), the innate immunity receptor of bacterial endotoxins, plays a pivotal role in the induction of inflammatory responses. TLR4 activation by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is achieved by the coordinate and sequential action of three other proteins, LBP, CD14 and MD-2 receptors, that bind lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and present it to TLR4 by forming the activated (TLR4-MD-2-LPS)(2) complex. Small molecules active in modulating the TLR4 activation process have great pharmacological interest as vaccine adjuvants, immunotherapeutics or antisepsis and anti-inflammatory agents. In this review we present natural and synthetic molecules active in inhibiting TLR4-mediated LPS signalling in humans and their therapeutic potential. New pharmacological applications of TLR4 antagonists will be also presented related to the recently discovered role of TLR4 in the insurgence and progression of neuropathic pain and sterile inflammations.     

Toll-like receptor 4, but not toll-like receptor 2, is a signaling receptor for Escherichia and Salmonella lipopolysaccharides

Two members of the mammalian Toll-like receptor (TLR) family, TLR2 and TLR4, have been implicated as receptors mediating cellular activation in response to bacterial LPS. Through the use of mAbs raised against human TLR2 and TLR4, we have conducted studies in human cell lines and whole blood to ascertain the relative contribution of these receptors to LPS induced cytokine release. We show that the contribution of TLR2 and TLR4 to LPS-induced cellular activation correlates with the relative expression levels of these two TLRs in a given cell type. In addition, we have found that significant differences in cell stimulatory activity exist between various smooth and rough LPS types that cannot be ascribed to known LPS structural features. These results suggest that impurities in the LPS may be responsible for some of the activity and this would be in agreement with recently published results of others. Upon repurification, none of the commercial LPS preparations activate cells through TLR2, but continue to stimulate cells with comparable activity through TLR4. Our results confirm recent findings that TLR4, but not TLR2, mediates cellular activation in response to LPS derived from both Escherichia coli and Salmonella minnesota. Additionally, we show that TLR4 is the predominant signaling receptor for LPS in human whole blood.     

脂多糖信号通路中的蛋白质修饰

革兰氏阴性细菌外膜中的脂多糖,又称内毒素,感染宿主后可导致脓毒症、脓毒性休克和多器官功能障碍综合症. 脂多糖借助信号转导通路诱发宿主的应答,刺激免疫细胞产生大量具有致热效应的炎性细胞因子,引起免疫系统的过度活化. 近年来,研究脂多糖受体TLR4及其信号转导在先天免疫和获得性免疫中的作用,以及脂多糖信号通路的复杂调控机制取得了突破性进展. 其中蛋白质翻译后修饰参与脂多糖信号通路调节的研究成为这一领域的新热点之一. 本文总结了磷酸化修饰、泛素化修饰、ISG15化修饰和SUMO化修饰在调节脂多糖信号通路方面的作用.不仅对被修饰蛋白如何传递和调节脂多糖信号以及翻译后修饰在该过程中的作用进行了阐述,还着眼于不同翻译后修饰形式之间的关联.脂多糖信号通路的深入研究不但有助于阐明内毒素相关疾病的分子机理,还可为临床预防和治疗革兰氏阴性细菌感染所致疾病提供新靶点.     

Endotoxin recognition: in fish or not in fish?

The interaction between pathogens and their multicellular hosts is initiated by activation of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs). These receptors, that include most notably members of the toll-like receptor (TLR) family, recognize specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). TLR4 is a central part of the receptor complex that is involved in the activation of the immune system by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) through the specific recognition of its endotoxic moiety (Lipid A). This is a critical event that is essential for the immune response to Gram-negative bacteria as well as the etiology of endotoxic shock. Interestingly, compared to mammals, fish are resistant to endotoxic shock. This in vivo resistance concurs with in vitro studies demonstrating significantly lowered sensitivity of fish leukocytes to LPS activation. Further, our in vitro analyses demonstrate that in trout mononuclear phagocytes, LPS fails to induce antiviral genes, an event that occurs downstream of TLR4 and is required for the development of endotoxic shock. Finally, an in silico approach that includes mining of different piscine genomic and EST databases, reveals the presence in fish of all of the major TLR signaling elements except for the molecules specifically involved in TLR4-mediated endotoxin recognition and signaling in mammals. Collectively, our analysis questions the existence of TLR4-mediated cellular responses to LPS in fish. We further speculate that other receptors, in particular beta-2 integrins, may play a primary role in the activation of piscine leukocytes by LPS.     

Extracellular Ca(2+) suppresses endotoxin-inducible tissue factor activation in monocytic THP-1 cells

BACKGROUND: Monocytic tissue factor (TF), an initiator of extrinsic blood coagulation, is often activated under various inflammatory conditions including endotoxemia. This activation could be a contributing factor to the manifestation of disseminated intravascular coagulation following septic shock. HYPOTHESIS: We herein determine if extracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](ex)) regulates bacterial endotoxin (LPS)-inducible monocytic TF activation. METHODS: We have employed a model monocytic cell line (THP-1) to explore the mode of action of [Ca(2+)](ex) on the modulation of LPS-induced TF activation. TF activity was measured by a single stage clotting assay, while TF expression as well as LPS recognition and its receptor expression were studied in immunofluorescent approaches. RESULTS: LPS-induced TF activation was inversely correlated to [Ca(2+)](ex). Upon exposure of THP-1 cells to LPS (1.5 microg ml(-1)) for 6 h in the Hanks' medium without CaCl(2), TF was activated by nearly 10-fold. TF activation appreciably decreased with the increasing [Ca(2+)](ex). No more than 3.5-fold TF activation was detected at 5 mM [Ca(2+)](ex). Consistent with the significantly lower degree of TF activation, LPS-induced TF expression at 5 mM [Ca(2+)](ex) was 60 per cent less than that without [Ca(2+)](ex). FACScan analysis showed that LPS recognition was significantly blocked at 5 mM [Ca(2+)](ex) which however had no effect on the expression of CD14 and CD11b, the proposed major LPS receptors. Moreover, LPS binding in vitro was significantly inhibited by 5 mM CaCl(2). CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that [Ca(2+)](ex) blocked LPS recognition without affecting its receptor expression on THP-1 monocytes. This insensitivity to LPS thereby resulted in the depressed inducible monocytic TF expression and activation.     

Activation of human meningeal cells is modulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and non-LPS components of Neisseria meningitidis and is independent of Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 and TLR2 signalling

The interactions of Neisseria meningitidis with cells of the meninges are critical to progression of the acute, compartmentalized intracranial inflammatory response that is characteristic of meningococcal meningitis. An important virulence mechanism of the bacteria is the ability to shed outer membrane (OM) blebs containing lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which has been assumed to be the major pro-inflammatory molecule produced during meningitis. Comparison of cytokine induction by human meningeal cells following infection with wild-type meningococci, LPS-deficient meningococci or after treatment with OM isolated from both organisms, demonstrated the involvement of non-LPS bacterial components in cell activation. Significantly, recognition of LPS-replete OM did not depend on host cell expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)4, the accessory protein MD-2 or CD14, or the recruitment of LPS-accessory surface proteins heat shock protein (HSP)70, HSP90alpha, chemokine receptor CXCR4 and growth differentiation factor (GDF)5. In addition, recognition of LPS-deficient OM was not associated with the expression of TLR2 or any of these other molecules. These data suggest that during meningococcal meningitis innate recognition of both LPS and non-LPS modulins is dependent on the expression of as yet uncharacterized pattern recognition receptors on cells of the meninges. Moreover, the biological consequences of cellular activation by non-LPS modulins suggest that clinical intervention strategies based solely on abrogating the effects of LPS are likely to be only partially effective.     

Toxoplasma gondii interferes with lipopolysaccharide-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase activation by mechanisms distinct from endotoxin tolerance

We show in this study that Toxoplasma gondii infection induces rapid activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, and stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase MAPK, followed promptly by their deactivation in mouse macrophages. Nevertheless, when infected cells were subsequently subjected to LPS triggering, MAPK activation was severely defective, in particular in the case of p38 MAPK, which is required for LPS-triggered TNF-alpha and IL-12 production. Similar effects occurred during endotoxin tolerance, but the phenomena were distinct. LPS pretriggering failed to activate the major p38 MAPK kinase, MAPK kinase 3/6. Toxoplasma infection, in contrast, resulted in sustained activation of this kinase. Furthermore, endotoxin pre-exposure blocked IkappaBalpha degradation upon subsequent LPS triggering, but this was not the case for Toxoplasma preinfection. Endotoxin-mediated down-regulation of the LPS receptor, Toll-like receptor 4, has been suggested as one possible mechanism contributing to tolerance, and we found in this study that LPS down-modulated Toll-like receptor 4 expression. In contrast, Toxoplasma infection induced up-regulation of this pattern recognition receptor. Our results show that T. gondii blocks LPS-triggered cytokine production in part through MAPK inactivation, and that this occurs through pathways distinct from endotoxin-induced tolerance.     

Lipopolysaccharide stimulates the MyD88-independent pathway and results in activation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 and the expression of a subset of lipopolysaccharide-inducible genes.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers innate immune responses through Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, a member of the TLR family that participates in pathogen recognition. TLRs recruit a cytoplasmic protein, MyD88, upon pathogen recognition, mediating its function for immune responses. Two major pathways for LPS have been suggested in recent studies, which are referred to as MyD88-dependent and -independent pathways. We report in this study the characterization of the MyD88-independent pathway via TLR4. MyD88-deficient cells failed to produce inflammatory cytokines in response to LPS, whereas they responded to LPS by activating IFN-regulatory factor 3 as well as inducing the genes containing IFN-stimulated regulatory elements such as IP-10. In contrast, a lipopeptide that activates TLR2 had no ability to activate IFN-regulatory factor 3. The MyD88-independent pathway was also activated in cells lacking both MyD88 and TNFR-associated factor 6. Thus, TLR4 signaling is composed of at least two distinct pathways, a MyD88-dependent pathway that is critical to the induction of inflammatory cytokines and a MyD88/TNFR-associated factor 6-independent pathway that regulates induction of IP-10.