拉丁美洲风景园林实践全景概览

介绍拉丁美洲风景园林的沿革,总结不同历史时期建筑和风景园林设计对自然景观的干预,展现拉丁美洲的自然向人工环境演变的过程：首先是前哥伦布时期保留的古文明宇宙观与自然的关系;其次是欧洲帝国殖民时期对主要的城市以及风景园林带来的影响;最后,描绘了20世纪初的现代风景园林师对场所的重视和文化识别性特征的探索,并向读者介绍了数位具有代表性的拉丁美洲风景园林设计师。     

Advances of radiation sterilisation in tissue banking

Under the auspices of the IAEA tissue banking programme on “Radiation Sterilisation of Tissue Graft” conducted from 1985 to 2004, many scientists and surgeons were involved in various regional research and development (R&D) projects mainly in dealing with radiation dose selection, radiation effects on human tissues and quality system in radiation sterilisation. New findings on radiation effects, tissue processing and preservation were shared during the regional and interregional meetings and workshops. Many tissue banks started to use radiation (25 kGy) to sterilize tissue grafts for tissue safety and efficacy and still continue to use it. The IAEA Code of Practice for Radiation Sterilization of Tissues Allografts developed in 2007 offered simpler methods to conduct radiation dose setting and dose validation experiments for tissue grafts. Advances in dose selection and dose mapping are continued under the quality management system when banks need to be certified to continue their operation. The combination of good tissue processing and preservation as well as good radiation practice will ensure the tissue products are properly sterilised thus safe and of high quality. Experience in meeting challenges in using radiation sterilisation and achievements reported by the tissue bankers are shared here.     

The evolution and impact of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) program on radiation and tissue banking in the Latin American region

Since 1993, the IAEA supported the establishment or the consolidation of seven tissue banks in the region. As a direct or indirect consequence of the implementation of the IAEA program, more than 53 tissue banks are now operating in the participating countries. The fast development of tissue banks in the Latin America region under the ARCAL Agreement and with the financial and technical support of the IAEA program made it necessary to train new tissue bank operators and medical personnel. In general, 90 tissue bank operators and medical personnel were trained in the training centre of Buenos Aires. Another six tissue bank operators and medical personnel were trained in the International Training Centre of Singapore. The main impact of the IAEA program in the region was the following: the establishment or consolidation of fifty-three tissue banks in nine countries in the region; the implementation of five national projects, allocating $1,006,737 dollars for this purpose and of one regional project allocating $284,741 dollars for this purpose; the use of the IAEA Standards, the IAEA Code of Practice and the IAEA Public Awareness Strategies in several tissue banks in the region; the application of quality control and quality assurances manuals in all of the participating countries.     

The future role of the professional associations in the promotion of tissue banking activities in Asia and the Pacific and in the Latin America regions

There are several important roles that the established professional associations [Asia-Pacific Association of Surgical Tissue Banking (APASTB) and Latin American Association of Tissue Banks (ALABAT)] could play for the promotion of tissue banking activities in Asia and the Pacific and in the Latin American regions in the future. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) could also play an important role in supporting the activities of both professional associations in the field of training, exchange of scientific information, the standardisation of national norms and regulations, the use of the IAEA documents, particularly the “Radiation Sterilisation of Tissue Allografts: Requirements for Validation and Routine Control. A Code of Practice”, with the purpose to improve the quality of the activities carried out by the established tissue banks and the nuclear facilities in charge of the sterilisation of the processed tissues, and to increase tissue donations. The role of APASTB and ALABAT could be relevant and important for the improvement of the work of the established tissue banks in Asia and the Pacific and in the Latin American regions, and could increase the effectiveness and efficiency of their works, the improvement of management good practices and for increasing the awareness of the community on the importance of the activities carried out by the tissue banks, among others.     

The impact of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) program on radiation and tissue banking in Asia and the Pacific and the Latin American regions

The technical assistance program of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for its member states in the framework of the implementation of its program on radiation and tissue banking focuses on ensuring the availability of quality radiation-sterilised tissue grafts. The IAEA also helps its member states to develop quality control capabilities in order to ensure the safe use of the processed tissues in certain medical treatments. The majority of developing countries does not have such capacity, and must import expensive sterilised tissues from developed countries. The IAEA’s core contribution to its program on radiation and tissue banking in Asia and the Pacific and the Latin American regions is a technology for sterilisation by gamma radiation and a training program for tissue bank operators and medical personnel. The Agency develops capabilities for radiation sterilisation of tissue grafts, both for reducing the pre-processing bacterial load, and as a terminal sterilisation process. Sterilising tissue grafts offers a clear advantage in terms of safety. Moreover, compared to alternative sterilisation methods, radiation sterilisation is considered particularly safe in relation to environmental concerns, and the deposition of harmful residuals in the tissue, which occurs for example in the use of chemical such as ethylene oxide gas. Radiation sterilisation, thus, has become the method of choice for an increasing number of tissue banks. Radiation sterilisation of tissue grafts is a critical component in the chain connecting donors to recipients of high quality tissue grafts. Due to this fact, the IAEA has evolved as the only organisation in the UN System with expertise related to tissue banking.     

A future vision of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) program on radiation and tissue banking for Asia and the Pacific and Latin American regions

In order to solve some of the problems that are affecting tissue banking activities in the world, a new program/project proposal could be prepared by the IAEA and interested Member States in order to implement it in 2009. The main objective of the new program/project proposal could be the following: To consolidate tissue banks activities in a selected group of IAEA Member States by increasing the quality of the tissue processing and sterilization methods used. The specific objective to be reached by the new program/project proposal could be the following: To reach international standards in all activities carried out by a selected group of tissue banks, as well as the establishment of a limited regional tissue processing centres in specific regions. The following are the conditions to be met by the interested tissue banks, in order to participate in the new program/project proposal: To process different types of tissues for medical treatment using the ionizing radiation technique for tissue sterilization; To apply at least one of the current version of the IAEA Code of Practice, the IAEA Standards and the IAEA Public Awareness Strategies and to have the support of national health authorities for the use of the remaining IAEA documents in the near future; To have in force agreements with public and private hospitals for the use of the sterilized tissues processed by the bank for medical treatment; To have in place a donor referral system, or has the approval by the national health authorities to adopt such system in the near future; To receive the support from the national health authority to participate in the implementation of the new program/project proposal.     

Ethics and genetics in Latin America

Genetic research in human beings poses deep ethical problems, one being the problem of distributive justice. If we suppose that genetic technologies are able to produce visible benefits for the well being of people, and that these benefits are affordable to only a favored portion of society, then the consequence is obvious. We are introducing a new source of inequality. In the first section of this paper, I attempt to justify some concern for the distributive consequences of applying genetics to human beings. This concern transcends a mere preoccupation for material equality. I argue that genetic inequality can undermine the very basis of social cooperation, at least regarding health care. The second section is more practical. My aim is to defend how, at least in some legal and cultural frameworks (such as those clearly apparent in some Latin American countries), the undesired distributive consequences of genetics are more likely to arise and more difficult to avoid.     

Community Studies in Latin America

Revolt Against the Dead: The Modernization of a Mayan Community in the High- lands of Guatemala. Douglas E. Brintnall .
Agrarian Reform and Peasant Economy in Southern Peru. David Guillet .
San Rafael: Camba Town. Ally MacLean Stearman .     

拉丁美洲药用植物

本文简介了拉丁美洲药用植物的总体情况,30多种重要种类的产地、药用部位、活性成分、功效,以及常用种类的简要情况。     

Eltor cholera in Latin America

Cholera epidemics in South and Central America in the period 1991-1999 are characterized. The mechanisms of existence of Vibrio eltor in environmental objects have been substantiated. The causes and conditions of endemic foci formation which determine the infection spread not only within the countries of the subcontinent, but also far beyond its borders are shown. The effectiveness of cholera control interventions is evaluated.