Occlusal and morphogenetic field evolution in the dentition of European Nyctitheriidae (Euarchonta,Mammalia)

Abstract

The nyctithere genera Saturninia, Cryptotopos and members of the subfamily Amphidozotheriinae are well-represented by dental remains in the European later Eocene. Their molar occlusal relations are described in detail, demonstrating a diversity of adaptations to insectivory, including dilambdodonty, minor trends in zalambdodonty, development of a large talon shelf in upper first and second molars and a step in the trigon-trigonid shearing surface that provides an extra facet in buccal phase. Minor lingual phase wear is recognized for the first time in the family, but only in relatively worn teeth. Nyctithere molars differ from those of most insectivorous mammals today in having well-developed paraconules and metaconules on upper molars, which in most cases lack a marked bucco-lingual tilt, associated with a more transverse jaw action. Amphidozotherium, however, shows tilting and a basally shifted M¹ hypocone associated with M₁ talonid exodaenodonty and a minor trend in zalambdodonty. Nyctitheres primitively have three deeply notched lobate lower incisors and a large but procumbent premolariform lower canine. Amphidozotheriines have modified their I₃ into a premolariform tooth, by shifting the premolarization field mesially. Amphidozotherium has also shifted this field distally, reducing P_2–3 in size and their roots from two to one.     

New remains of Chambius kasserinensis from the Eocene of Tunisia and evaluation of proposed affinities for Macroscelidea (Mammalia,Afrotheria)

Abstract

Chambius kasserinensis from the late Early or early Middle Eocene Chambi locality, central Tunisia, is undoubtedly the oldest known macroscelidid and possibly the basalmost representative of the order Macroscelidea. Hence, since its discovery in 1986, Chambius has played a key role in analyses focusing on afrotherian and eutherian phylogeny; for instance, as early as 1995, Butler’s review of fossil macroscelideans highlighted the central position of Chambius in the origin of the order. Despite this, Chambius remained poorly known until recently. Here based on new mandibular fragments, well-preserved upper molars and CT scan analysis of the holotype maxilla, Chambius is revised. Its dentition is first described in detail, providing a precise characterization of the genus. Chambius is notably defined by a submolariform P₄ with a three-cusped talonid, a reduced talonid on M₂, and a prominent metaconule on M^1?2. Interestingly, the two transverse lophs of the upper molars are basically formed by preconulecristae, evoking the recently defined peculiar bilophodonty of paenungulates. Comparisons with other Paleogene and modern macroscelidids, European Louisinidae, and North American Apheliscidae are also made, allowing the various hypotheses about the origin and early evolution of macroscelidids to be reviewed.     

New stem elephant‐shrews (Mammalia,Macroscelidea) from the Eocene of Dur At‐Talah,Libya

Abstract: Two new primitive macroscelideans, Eotmantsoius perseverans gen. et sp. nov. and Nementchatherium rathbuni sp. nov. from the late Middle or Late Eocene locality of Dur At‐Talah, Libya, are described. Eotmantsoius is known from a single tooth and is characterized by low crown height, isolated conules, and lack of a preprotocrista and prehypocrista. Based on these characters, it appears to be more plesiomorphic than Chambius (late Early Eocene, Chambi, Tunisia), which was, to date, universally accepted as the oldest and most basal macroscelidean. Eotmantsoius appears, however, somewhat derived in having an entostyle, a pericone, a shorter mesial cingulum and larger intercusp valleys. The phylogenetic position of Eotmantsoius is unclear. The second new species, N. rathbuni, allows a reassessment of Nementchatherium. We suggest that it is the most derived of the herodotiines in having long preprotocrista and prehypocrista, reduced M2/m2, a robust entostyle twinned with the hypocone on M1 and the posterior aspect of the root of the maxillary jugal process placed along the length of M2. Nementchatherium rathbuni appears more derived than N. senarhense, from the Eocene locality of Bir El Ater, Algeria, in having smaller m2‐3 with no paraconid, a smaller hypoconulid on m2 and a more reduced talonid on m3 (with smaller hypoconid and entoconid). Nementchatherium rathbuni also has, distal to the m3, a coronoid canal. This character has commonly been proposed as a synapomorphy for paenungulates (e.g. proboscideans, sirenians and hyracoids); we investigate the possibility that it unites macroscelideans and paenungulates, as the superordinal clade Afrotheria suggests. Comparisons reveal that a coronoid canal also occurs in several nonafrotherian orders (lagomorphs, xenarthrans, artiodactyls and perissodactyls), suggesting that is not an exclusive synapomorphy for paenungulates plus macroscelideans. Moreover, the homology of the character within paenungulates is doubtful.     

The stem placental mammal <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prokennalestes</Emphasis> from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia

All materials, including upper and lower jaw fragments and isolated teeth, of two closely related species of the stem placental mammal Prokennalestes, P. minor Kielan-Jaworowska et Dashzeveg, 1989 (258 specimens) and P. trofimovi Kielan-Jaworowska et Dashzeveg, 1989 (251 specimens), from the type locality of Khovoor (Early Cretaceous of Mongolia) are described. These extensive materials allow for the first time the study of morphological and size variability in an Early Cretaceous mammal. Prokennalestes can be diagnosed by the dental formula I?/4, C1/1, P4–5/5, M3/3, presence of the Meckelian groove, the mandibular foramen positioned dorsally on a prominent longitudinal ridge, presence of the masseteric foramen, double-rooted and premolariform lower canine, submolariform P5 with a large protocone and minute metacone, presence of the preparastyle, cusplike postmetacrista, and cusplike conules with incipient conular cristae on the upper molars, premolariform p5, the protoconid distinctly higher than the metaconid, the paraconid and metaconid connate at the base, transverse protocristid, and presence of distal metacristid on the lower molars. Two Prokennalestes species are reliably distinguished by the tooth dimensions (P. minor is smaller by 20%), the position of the infraorbital foramen (under P4 in P. minor and between P4 and P5 or under P5 in P. trofimovi), the presence of protoconal swelling on P4 (usually absent in P. minor and usually present in P. trofimovi), the ectocingulum extension in M3 (longer in P. minor), position of the posterior end of the mandibular symphysis (under p2 in P. minor, under p2–p3 in P. trofimovi), and by the position of the posterior mental foramen (under p4 in P. minor and under p5 in P. trofimovi). Taking into account considerable morphological differences between the two samples, they are regarded as different species rather than sexual morphs of the same species. Prokennalestes is a basal eutherian mammal similar in phylogenetic position to other stem placentals (Eomaia, Murtoilestes, Bobolestes, Aspanlestes). A more exact phylogenetic position of Prokennalestes can be established based on rigorous phylogenetic analysis including a large set of known stem therian and stem placental taxa.     

A new species of Pseudoloris (Omomyidae,Primates) from the middle Eocene of Sant Jaume de Frontanyà (Eastern Pyrenees,Spain)

In this article we describe a new species of Pseudoloris (Omomyidae, Primates) from the Robiacian (middle Eocene) locality of Sant Jaume de Frontanyà (Eastern Pyrenees, Spain). Pseudoloris pyrenaicus is characterized by its medium size, thickened paracristid, absence of a distinct paraconid, and well‐developed buccal cingulid in the lower molars, large hypoconulid in the M₃, paraconule and hypocone reduced in the M¹ and M² and absent in the M³. The material from Sant Jaume de Frontanyà constitutes the most abundant sample of the genus Pseudoloris found until now in the Iberian Peninsula. Almost all the dental elements have been recovered, including those teeth hardly known for other species of the genus, such as lower and upper incisors. The new species shows intermediate features between Pseudoloris isabenae from Capella and Pseudoloris parvulus, present in different Spanish and French sites. Therefore, we consider that Pseudoloris pyrenaicus is an intermediate form between these two species. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:92–99, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Broad‐scale patterns in smoke‐responsive germination from the south‐eastern Australian flora

Questions

Fire is a crucial component of many ecosystems. Plants whose seeds germinate in response to smoke may benefit from resource availability in the post‐fire environment. Smoke can influence germination timing and success, as well as seedling vigour, resulting in burgeoning research interest in smoke‐responsive germination. Research in this field has largely focused on four key ‘Mediterranean‐type’ fire‐prone ecosystems: the Mediterranean Basin, South African fynbos, Californian chaparral and Western Australia. There are far fewer studies from south‐eastern Australia, a fire‐prone but not “Mediterranean‐type” region. How does smoke‐responsive germination in this region vary according to ecological, phylogenetic, and methodological variables?

Location

South‐eastern Australia.

Methods

We investigated patterns of smoke‐promoted germination in south‐eastern Australian plants across habitat types, growth forms, fire response strategies, phylogeny, taxonomic levels and smoke application methods. We compiled and interrogated data comprising 303 entries on germination responses to smoke in 233 south‐eastern Australian plant species, from 33 different sources.

Results

Smoke‐responsive germination occurs at a lower rate (~41% of tested species) in south‐eastern Australian flora than it does in fynbos and Western Australian floras, and there is clear patterning within these data. Obligate‐seeding species were more likely to respond, Leguminosae and Rubiaceae were less likely to respond (although we question the generality of these results), while Poaceae were more likely to respond to smoke. Finally, studies using aerosol smoke and studies conducted in situ were most likely to find smoke‐promoted germination.

Conclusions

Obligate seeders and Poaceae may be selected for in habitats with higher fire frequencies, consistent with literature suggesting that short inter‐fire intervals favour grasslands over forests. These findings may be particular to south‐eastern Australia, or more widely applicable; more broad‐scale comparative research will reveal the answer. By synthesizing the south‐eastern Australian smoke germination literature we broaden our understanding beyond the better‐studied Mediterranean‐type floras.

     

Wear pattern and functional morphology of dryolestoid molars (Mammalia, Cladotheria)

Pretribosphenic dryolestoid molars are characterized by a reversed triangular alignment of the “primary trigon” (formed by the paracone, metacone and stylocone) and trigonid crucial for the embrasure shearing process. These molars are abraded along the protocristid and paracristid, and show a typical wear pattern with mesially and distally sloping dentine fields due to their thin enamel. The wear pattern of lipotyphlan and didelphid tribosphenic molars with considerably thicker enamel does not show this sloping. In dryolestoid molars two directions of striations occur. Steeper striations oriented linguo-buccally are present on facet 1 below the protocristid, and about 10° less inclined striations of the same direction have been observed near the talonid base. This reflects the railing function of the hypoflexid for the paracone of the corresponding upper molar. Facet 3 in the hypoflexid gets steeper with progressive wear, whereas facets 1 and 2 on the mesial and distal sides of the trigonid are flattened during wear. In the masticatory process the hypoflexid has mainly a shearing function with a crushing component because of its lesser inclination than the functional shearing surfaces below the trigonid crests. Striations on the exposed dentine field along the paracristid and in the guiding groove of facet 3 indicate that these two surfaces were formed by attrition (tooth to tooth contact). The exposed dentine fields at the cusp apices and along the protocristid are gauged and therefore must be a result of abrasion (tooth to food contact).     

Cryptic speciation in the narrow‐headed vole Lasiopodomys (Stenocranius) gregalis (Rodentia: Cricetidae)

Recent study on Lasiopodomys (Stenocranius) gregalis has revealed four clear mitochondrial lineages with differences exceeding the species level. The most divergent is the clade from south‐eastern Transbaikalia. Multilocus (six nuclear genes), morphological (dental characters of m1 and M3) and behavioural (breeding experiments) analyses were conducted to test the hypothesis that L. gregalis is a complex of two cryptic species. All of the applied methods distinguish the independent status of voles from south‐eastern Transbaikalia. This clade occupies a portion of the distribution range of the currently valid subspecies L. g. raddei including its terra typica. According to the results of cyt b analysis, the lectotype of L. g. raddei belongs to the Transbaikal clade. We re‐establish the species status for the taxon Lasiopodomys raddei including populations from south‐eastern Transbaikalia, as a cryptic species of the narrow‐headed vole complex.     

Fox‐baiting in agricultural landscapes in south‐eastern Australia: a case‐study appraisal and suggestions for improvement

Summary In south‐eastern Australia, the introduced Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a major predator of native wildlife and livestock. Fox control in agricultural landscapes is heavily reliant on the laying of poisoned baits by private landholders, yet there have been few assessments of the application or success of landholder‐baiting practices. We evaluated a community‐based fox‐baiting campaign, typical of programs employed throughout the agricultural regions of south‐eastern Australia to control foxes. We recorded the spatial coverage of 1080 baits deployed by landholders, assessed baiting procedures, monitored the survival of six radio‐collared foxes during and after baiting, and compared the spatial coverage and likely effectiveness of the baiting program with two alternative (theoretical) baiting strategies. Relative to other baiting programs, coordination among neighbours was reasonably high, with 37.5% of baited properties (n = 40) adjoining ≥3 neighbouring properties that also contained baits. Nevertheless, the maximum distance from the centre of a baited property to the nearest edge of an unbaited property was <750 m (mean = 380 m ± 147 m SD). On average, 33% (±17% SD) of each fox’s home range overlapped with baited properties, but only two foxes died during the baiting program. The remaining four foxes were still alive 10 weeks after baiting ceased. Modelling of simulated fox home ranges showed that 13.5% contained no bait stations based on the community baiting program, whereas alternative roadside‐ and grid‐baiting strategies (theoretically) delivered baits to all simulated home ranges. Some landholders employed practices that could reduce the effectiveness of baiting programs such as not removing decayed baits before deploying new ones or placing bait stations too close together. Our research illustrates the difficulties of managing a coordinated baiting program on private land that effectively controls foxes. Alternative baiting strategies such as roadside baiting need to be considered to improve fox control in agricultural landscapes.     

New fossil Hyaenodonta (Mammalia,Placentalia) from the Ypresian and Lutetian of France and the evolution of the Proviverrinae in southern Europe

The proviverrines from the Ypresian (MP7–MP10) and Lutetian (MP11–MP14) are represented mainly by species recorded in the northern and central parts of Europe (Paris Basin, Belgian Basin, Germany, Switzerland). Here, we describe fossils from southern France: Saint‐Papoul (MP8 + 9; Aude) and Aigues‐Vives 2 (?MP13; Aude). One dentary with secant molars from Saint‐Papoul represents a new genus and species, Preregidens langebadrae. This taxon is possibly present in Avenay (France), the MP8 + 9 reference locality. One of the three dentaries discovered in Aigues‐Vives 2 belongs to the hypercarnivorous Oxyaenoides schlosseri, previously represented by only two isolated lower molars. This dentary appears to be the most derived of the proviverrines. This species is possibly present in Saint‐Martin‐de‐Londres (France), a locality that is considered to be close to the MP13 reference level. The two other dentaries from Aigues‐Vives 2 support the presence of Eurotherium theriodis and provide the first possible evidence of sexual dimorphism in a proviverrine species. A phylogenetic analysis of the proviverrines is performed to resolve the phylogenetic position of the three taxa. This identifies a close relationship between the new genus (Preregidens) and Oxyaenoides. The new fossils allow the age of Saint‐Papoul and Aigues‐Vives 2 to be refined: the first locality is considered to be close in age to Avenay (Ypresian; France), while the second one seems to be close to Egerkingen γ (Lutetian; Switzerland), which is considered to be possibly close in age to the MP13 reference level. Finally, the presence of O. schlosseri and E. theriodis in the southern part of France is compatible with the hypothesis that the mammals involved in the first intra‐Eocene turnover migrated northwards.     

Ankistrodinium armigerum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new species of heterotrophic marine sand‐dwelling dinoflagellate from Japan and Australia

A new heterotrophic sand‐dwelling dinoflagellate, Ankistrodinium armigerum K. Watanabe, Miyoshi, Kubo, Murray et Horiguchi sp. nov., is described from Ishikari Beach, Hokkaido, Japan and Port Botany, NSW, Australia. The dinoflagellate is laterally compressed, possessing a short triangular epicone and a large sac‐like hypocone. It possesses a right‐handed cingulum and a deeply‐incised sulcus. The sulcus descends towards the posterior of the cell where it becomes much deeper and wider, resulting in a bilobed ventral side to the hypocone, with a greater excavation of the left lobe than the right. In addition, the right lobe of the hypocone is shorter than the left lobe, which allows a partial view of the left sulcal wall when the cell is viewed from its right side. The sulcus ascends in the epicone to form an apical groove. The apical groove is linear but terminates in an ellipsoid fashion and its extremity approaches, but does not form a closed loop with the apical end of the linear portion. The dinoflagellate possesses two distinct size classes of trichocysts. The large trichocysts are located in the posterior part of the cell, while small trichocysts are distributed throughout the cell. The dinoflagellate shares morphological characteristics with the heterotrophic sand‐dwelling dinoflagellate, Ankistrodinium semilunatum, the type species of the genus. These include a laterally compressed cell, a right‐handed cingulum, a deeply‐incised sulcus and the same basic structure to the apical groove. Molecular phylogenetic analyses based on small and large subunits of rDNA showed that in both trees, A. semilunatum and A. armigerum formed a robust clade, suggesting that these two species are closely related. Because no organism with the characteristics of this species exists and because this species is closely related to A. semilunatum, we concluded that this species should be described as a second species of the genus Ankistrodinium.     

A ‘giant’ purgatoriid (Plesiadapiformes) from the Paleocene of Montana,USA: mosaic evolution in the earliest primates

Ursolestes perpetior gen. et sp. nov. is a large purgatoriid plesiadapiform primate from the middle/late Puercan (earliest Paleocene) Simpson Quarry, Montana, USA. It differs from Purgatorius Van Valen and Sloan, 1965, the only other known purgatoriid and the oldest discovered primate, in its substantially larger body size as inferred from the dimensions of the known parts of its dentition, while resembling Purgatorius in possessing a large lower canine, unreduced p1, and in the upper molars, a protocone twist and weakly developed postprotocone fold; moreover, the m3 of U. perpetior possesses an expanded, plesiadapiform‐like posterior lobe of the talonid that supports the hypoconulid. The large lower canine and the greater development of trenchant molar crests suggest that U. perpetior was more insectivorous, differing appreciably from the omnivorous niche long hypothesized for Purgatorius and purportedly marking the insectivore–primate transition. Hence, U. perpetior adds significant new knowledge regarding the breadth of the adaptive zone occupied by purgatoriids in their position at the very beginnings of primate evolution.     

Eutherian mammals from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia

A collection of eutherian mammals consisting of 39 specimens (teeth and jaw fragments) from the ?Aptian or Albian Khoboor Beds in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, is described. It contains 3 taxa: Prokenna1estes gen.n., assigned to the Otlestidae Nessov, new rank, with 2 shrew size species; P. trofimovi sp.n. and P. minor sp.n.; a heavily worn larger lower molar which will be described elsewhere. It cannot be excluded that P. trofimovi and P. minor are only sexual morphs within the same species. Prokennalestes and Bobolestes Nessov are possibly the oldest known eutherian mammals, but Prokennalestes is morphologically more primitive than Bobolestes. It has a labial mandibular foramen, 5 premolars and 3 molars, 3 cusps in parastylur region, paracone larger than metacone, unwinged conules, no pre- and posteingula, and lower molars with a 3-cusped talonid, which is narrower than the trigonid, Otlestes and Kennalestes may be derived with little modification from Prokennalestes. Prokennalestes gen.n. is congeneric with Prokennalestes Trofimov and Prozalambdalestes Trofimov, which are both nomina nuda.     

Biodegradation of 1080: Testing soils in south‐eastern Australia for sodium fluoroacetate‐degrading micro‐organisms

Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) is a vertebrate poison commonly used for the control of vertebrate pests in Australia. Long‐term environmental persistence of 1080 from baiting operations has likely nontarget species and environmental impacts and is a matter of public concern. Defluorinating micro‐organisms have been detected in soils of Western and central Australia, and Queensland, but not in south‐eastern Australia. The presence or absence of defluorinating micro‐organisms in soils from south‐eastern Australia will assist in determining whether long‐term environmental persistence of 1080 is or is not occurring. Soils from the Central West Slopes and Plains and Central Tablelands of New South Wales were sampled to investigate the presence and capability of 1080 defluorinating soil micro‐organisms. Thirty‐one species of micro‐organisms were isolated from soils from each site after 10 days incubation in a 20 mM 1080 solution. Of these, 13 isolates showed measurable defluorinating ability when grown in a 1080 and sterile soil suspension. Two species, the bacteria Micromonospora, and the actinomycete Streptosporangium, have not been previously reported for their defluorinating ability. These results indicate that defluorinating micro‐organisms are present in soils in south‐eastern Australia, which adds weight to other studies that found that 1080 is subject to microbiological degradative processes following removal from the bait substrate. Soil micro‐organism defluorination, in combination with physical breakdown and uptake by plants, indicates that fluoroacetate in soils and natural water ways is unlikely to persist. This has implications for the better informed use of 1080 in pest animal management programmes in south‐eastern Australia.     

Biogeography and evolution of Abies (Pinaceae) in the Mediterranean Basin: the roles of long‐term climatic change and glacial refugia

Aim The genus Abies exemplifies plant diversification related to long‐term climatic, geological and evolutionary changes. Today, the Mediterranean firs comprise nine species, one natural hybrid and several varieties. Here I summarize current knowledge concerning the origin and evolution of the genus Abies in the Mediterranean Basin and propose a comprehensive hypothesis to explain the isolation and speciation pattern of Mediterranean firs. Location The Mediterranean Basin. Methods The literature on Abies was reviewed, focusing on the morphology, fossil records, molecular ecology, phytosociology and biogeography of the genus in the Mediterranean Basin. Results Abies fossils from the western Mediterranean indicate a wide Tertiary circum‐Mediterranean distribution of the Abies ancestor. Palaeogeographical data also suggest a single eastern Mediterranean Tertiary ancestor. Following the Miocene to Pliocene climate crisis and marine transgressions, the ancestor of the northern Mediterranean firs is hypothesized to have separated into two eastern groups, one on the Balkan Peninsula and the other in Asia Minor. However, land bridges may have permitted gene flow at times. A southward migration of A. alba to refugia, where older fir species may have remained isolated since the Miocene, could explain recent findings indicating that morphologically distant species are more closely related than expected based on such morphological classification. Main conclusions The Abies genus appears to have undergone significant morphological differentiation that does not necessarily imply reproductive isolation. That is, long‐term Mediterranean Basin dryness along a south‐eastern to north‐western gradient may have caused an initial Miocene–Pliocene speciation sequence. Pleistocene glacial cycles probably forced migrations to occur, leading to repeated contact between fir species in glacial refugia.     

Dental variability inSaimiri and the taxonomic status ofNeosaimiri fieldsi,an early squirrel monkey from La Venta,Colombia

Neosaimiri fieldsi, from the South American middle Miocene locality of La Venta, is represented by a relatively complete mandible and dentition that strongly resembles that of extantSaimiri. Comparison with a large sample of mandibles ofSaimiri indicates that this specimen cannot be distinguished from modern populations on the basis of any reportedly diagnostic feature, such as cingulid development, molar length ratio, trigonic/talonid ratio, or mandibular depth. The fossil is best considered an extinct species of the modern genusSaimiri until further material indicates otherwise.     

Systematic revision of the Late Miocene sabre‐toothed felid Paramachaerodus in Spain

Abstract: A systematic revision of the sabre‐toothed cat genus Paramachaerodus  Pilgrim, 1913 is presented. Two species are recognized within Paramachaerodus, Pa. orientalis, and Pa. maximiliani, and the genus Promegantereon  Kretzoi, 1938 is retrieved to include Promegantereon ogygia. Material from the Turolian Spanish localities of Crevillente‐2 (MN 11, Alicante) and Las Casiones (MN 13, Teruel), which was previously assigned to Paramachaerodus, is now included in the tribe Metailurini. The exceptional discoveries at the Spanish Vallesian (MN 10, Madrid) fossil site of Batallones‐1 have made it possible to characterize the dentition and cranial anatomy of a previously very poorly known machairodontine cat, formerly included in Paramachaerodus as Pa. ogygia, which now can be distinguished from Pa. orientalis and Pa. maximiliani by the following features: canines without crenulations, P3 with a marked disto‐lingual expansion, P4 without ectostyle and with a well‐developed protocone, M1 bucco‐lingually elongated and double‐rooted, m1 with a larger talonid, and primitive mandible morphology. Thus, the population from Batallones‐1 constitutes a clearly different form from the genus Paramachaerodus, and we propose its inclusion in the genus Promegantereon  Kretzoi, 1938 , together with an upper canine from Crevillente‐2 (MN 11), very similar to those from Batallones‐1. In contrast, Pa. orientalis shows the following apomorphies: crenulated canines, P3 reduced in size and without disto‐lingual expansion, P4 with a clear ectostyle as well as a reduced, backwardly displaced protocone and with a rounded and single‐rooted M1. The species Pa. maximiliani is characterized by its slightly larger size, crenulated canines, very elongated P3 with a moderate disto‐lingual expansion and P4 and M1 similar to those of Pa. orientalis. Paramachaerodus orientalis is recorded at Puente Minero (MN 11, Teruel), Concud (MN 12, Teruel), Crevillente‐15, and Crevillente‐16 (both MN 12, Alicante), and Paramachaerodus maximiliani in Venta del Moro (MN 13, Valencia). The available data suggest that Pr. ogygia was present in the Iberian Late Vallesian and Early Turolian faunas (MN 10 and MN 11) but disappeared after that age. Paramachaerodus was present in the faunas throughout the Turolian, with the species Pa. orientalis and Pa. maximiliani, this latter being probably part of the same immigration event that occurred in the Late Turolian and involved other mammal taxa such as camelids and ursids.     

New mammal remains from the Late Cretaceous Bostobe Formation (Northeast Aral Sea Region,Kazakhstan)

Four recently collected mammal specimens from the Upper Cretaceous (Santonian–?Campanian) Bostobe Formation in the northeastern Aral Sea Region, Kazakhstan are attributed to Asioryctitheria indet. (an edentulous dentary fragment) and the zhelestid Parazhelestes sp. cf. P. mynbulakensis (a maxillary fragment with a double-rooted canine, an M1, and a dentary fragment including m3). These new records double the known mammal fauna from this formation, which previously included the zhelestid Zhalmouzia bazhanovi and Zhelestidae indet. The taxonomic and ecological structure of the mammal assemblage from the Bostobe Formation can, on present evidence, be considered close to the other eutherian dominated Late Cretaceous mammal assemblages of Central Asia. This region is important in particular in the search for Late Cretaceous ancestors of crown-group eutherian mammal clades (Placentalia).