The study of genetic diversity patterns of Coffea commersoniana, an endangered coffee species from Madagascar: a model for conservation of other littoral forest species

Madagascar has 59 described species of Coffea, of which 42 are listed as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable by the criteria of the Red List Category system of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The littoral forest of Madagascar is a distinctive type of humid evergreen forest restricted to unconsolidated sand located within a few kilometers of the Indian Ocean, now persisting only as small fragments with ca. 10 % of its original range remaining. In an attempt to understand the genetic diversity of Madagascan coffee species, we studied ex situ and in situ populations of Coffea commersoniana, an endemic species of the littoral forests of southeastern Madagascar and soon to be impacted by mining activities in that region. The in situ populations studied showed higher genetic diversity than the ex situ population. The genetic partitioning among the two in situ populations of C. commersoniana was high enough to necessitate keeping the two populations separate for restoration purposes. Based on these findings, recommendations for conservation management (in situ and ex situ) are made.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered Brazilian endemic herb Cunila menthoides Benth. (Lamiaceae) and its implications for conservation

Cunila menthoides is classified as a xylopodiferous subshrub found in fragmented environments threatened by local agriculture and pasture activities. The species presents strong and pleasant smell, and is commonly used in south Brazilian folk medicine. Based on the species’ medicinal and aromatic potential, the aim of this work was to examine the genetic variation within and among C. menthoides populations, focusing on the conservation of this species. In this context, six C. menthoides populations collected in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, were analyzed by ISSR. The populations were sorted as four clusters according to geographic distribution. The six C. menthoides populations analyzed presented low genetic variability, indicating that each population derives from a limited number of plants in a low gene flow scenario. In situ and ex situ conservation approaches may be useful in this species. Conservation strategies for the species should be based on in situ and ex situ approaches.     

Planning for optimal conservation of geographical genetic variability within species

Systematic Conservation Planning (SCP) involves a series of steps that should be accomplished to determine the most cost-effective way to invest in conservation action. Although SCP has been usually applied at the species level (or hierarchically higher), it is possible to use alleles from molecular analyses at the population level as basic units for analyses. Here we demonstrate how SCP procedures can be used to establish optimum strategies for in situ and ex situ conservation of a single species, using Dipteryx alata (a Fabaceae tree species widely distributed and endemics to Brazilian Cerrado) as a case study. Data for the analyses consisted in 52 alleles from eight microsatellite loci coded for a total of 644 individual trees sampled in 25 local populations throughout species’ geographic range. We found optimal solutions in which seven local populations are the smallest set of local populations of D. alata that should be conserved to represent the known genetic diversity. Combining these several solutions allowed estimating the relative importance of the local populations for conserving all known alleles, taking into account the current land-use patterns in the region. A germplasm collection for this species already exists, so we also used SCP approach to identify the smallest number of populations that should be further collected in the field to complement the existing collection, showing that only four local populations should be sampled for optimizing the species ex situ representation. The initial application of the SCP methods to genetic data showed here can be a useful starting point for methodological and conceptual improvements and may be a first important step towards a comprehensive and balanced quantitative definition of conservation goals, shedding light to new possibilities for in situ and ex situ designs within species.     

Impact of Plant Cover on Fitness and Behavioural Traits of Captive Red-Eyed Tree Frogs (Agalychnis callidryas)

Despite the importance of ex situ conservation programmes as highlighted in the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan, there are few empirical studies that examine the influence of captive conditions on the fitness of amphibians, even for basic components of enclosure design such as cover provision. Maintaining the fitness of captive amphibian populations is essential to the success of ex situ conservation projects. Here we examined the impact of plant cover on measures of fitness and behaviour in captive red-eyed tree frogs (Agalychnis callidryas). We found significant effects of plant provision on body size, growth rates and cutaneous bacterial communities that together demonstrate a compelling fitness benefit from cover provision. We also demonstrate a strong behavioural preference for planted rather than non-planted areas. We also assessed the impact of plant provision on the abiotic environment in the enclosure as a potential driver of these behavioural and fitness effects. Together this data provides valuable information regarding enclosure design for a non-model amphibian species and has implications for amphibian populations maintained in captivity for conservation breeding programmes and research.     

Importance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> technology to future conservation programmes worldwide

The latest IUCN statistics show that of over 12,000 plant species, 70% are threatened, 19% are critically endangered and 28 species are extinct in the wild. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) highlights the importance of ex situ conservation of critically endangered plants. Long-term germplasm storage for species with recalcitrant seeds needs alternative measures. In vitro methods complement seed banking and other ex situ measures and are vital for long-term conservation. Conservation Biotechnology at RBG Kew is currently working on a number of rare and threatened recalcitrant species from biodiversity-rich areas of the world to develop good quality in vitro propagules for cryopreservation, recovery and restoration projects. The importance of successful in vitro propagation methods, transplantation technologies, cryopreservation and international networking for the integrated conservation of these species are discussed in detail.     

Conserving Plants in Gene Banks and Nature: Investigating Complementarity with Trifolium thompsonii Morton

A standard conservation strategy for plant genetic resources integrates in situ (on-farm or wild) and ex situ (gene or field bank) approaches. Gene bank managers collect ex situ accessions that represent a comprehensive snap shot of the genetic diversity of in situ populations at a given time and place. Although simple in theory, achieving complementary in situ and ex situ holdings is challenging. Using Trifolium thompsonii as a model insect-pollinated herbaceous perennial species, we used AFLP markers to compare genetic diversity and structure of ex situ accessions collected at two time periods (1995, 2004) from four locations, with their corresponding in situ populations sampled in 2009. Our goal was to assess the complementarity of the two approaches. We examined how gene flow, selection and genetic drift contributed to population change. Across locations, we found no difference in diversity between ex situ and in situ samples. One population showed a decline in genetic diversity over the 15 years studied. Population genetic differentiation among the four locations was significant, but weak. Association tests suggested infrequent, long distance gene flow. Selection and drift occurred, but differences due to spatial effects were three times as strong as differences attributed to temporal effects, and suggested recollection efforts could occur at intervals greater than fifteen years. An effective collecting strategy for insect pollinated herbaceous perennial species was to sample >150 plants, equalize maternal contribution, and sample along random transects with sufficient space between plants to minimize intrafamilial sampling. Quantifying genetic change between ex situ and in situ accessions allows genetic resource managers to validate ex situ collecting and maintenance protocols, develop appropriate recollection intervals, and provide an early detection mechanism for identifying problematic conditions that can be addressed to prevent further decline in vulnerable in situ populations.     

Ex Situ Conservation Priorities for the Wild Relatives of Potato (Solanum L. Section Petota)

Crop wild relatives have a long history of use in potato breeding, particularly for pest and disease resistance, and are expected to be increasingly used in the search for tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Their current and future use in crop improvement depends on their availability in ex situ germplasm collections. As these plants are impacted in the wild by habitat destruction and climate change, actions to ensure their conservation ex situ become ever more urgent. We analyzed the state of ex situ conservation of 73 of the closest wild relatives of potato (Solanum section Petota) with the aim of establishing priorities for further collecting to fill important gaps in germplasm collections. A total of 32 species (43.8%), were assigned high priority for further collecting due to severe gaps in their ex situ collections. Such gaps are most pronounced in the geographic center of diversity of the wild relatives in Peru. A total of 20 and 18 species were assessed as medium and low priority for further collecting, respectively, with only three species determined to be sufficiently represented currently. Priorities for further collecting include: (i) species completely lacking representation in germplasm collections; (ii) other high priority taxa, with geographic emphasis on the center of species diversity; (iii) medium priority species. Such collecting efforts combined with further emphasis on improving ex situ conservation technologies and methods, performing genotypic and phenotypic characterization of wild relative diversity, monitoring wild populations in situ, and making conserved wild relatives and their associated data accessible to the global research community, represent key steps in ensuring the long-term availability of the wild genetic resources of this important crop.     

Parks or arks: where to conserve threatened mammals?

Growing deterministic and stochastic threats to many wild populations of large vertebrates have focused attention on the conservation significance of captive breeding and subsequent reintroduction. However, work on both gorillas and black rhinos questions this shift in emphasis. In these species, field-based conservation can be effective if properly supported and, although this is not cheap, per capita costs may still be considerably lower than for ex situ propagation in captivity. Here we attempt to broaden the scope of this debate by contrasting the breeding success and costs of in situ and captive programmes for a range of threatened mammals. Data are scarce, but we find that across nine large-bodied genera, in situ conservation achieves comparable rates of population growth to those seen in established captive breeding programmes. Moreover, comparing budgets of well-protected reserves with zoos' own estimates of maintenance costs and the costs of zoo adoption schemes, we find that per capita costs for effective in situ conservation are consistently lower than those of maintenance in captivity. Captive breeding may be more cost-effective for smaller-bodied taxa, and will often remain desirable for large mammals restricted to one or two vulnerable wild populations. However, our results, coupled with the fact that effective in situ conservation protects intact ecosystems rather than single species, lead us to suggest that zoos might maximize their contribution to large mammal conservation by investing where possible in well-managed field-based initiatives, rather than establishing additional ex situ breeding programmes.     

A sophisticated species conservation strategy for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyssa yunnanensis</Emphasis>, a species with extremely small populations in China

Conservation of plant species with extremely small populations (PSESP) is a focus of wild plant conservation in China at present. A relevant strategy for PSESP conservation requires improvement from previous programs for rare and endangered plants and national key protected plants. An integrated strategy for PSESP conservation of the Nyssa yunnanensis was initiated and applied over a 7-year period (2009–2015). Here, we reviewed the processes to implement the strategy: resource inventory, formulation of conservation action plan (CAP), in situ conservation, seedling propagation, near situ conservation, ex situ conservation and scientific research. Major concerns and technical requirements for each action are described and further analyzed within a broad scope to conserve PSESPs. A detailed resource inventory that highlights both the change in population status and the participation of local residents is recommended before the formulation of the CAP. Techniques for determination of the area of a mini-reserve is developed for in situ conservation of N. yunnanensis. Near situ conservation is a novel approach whereby establishing new viable population in contiguous areas with a similar climate, habitat and community, in which techniques for seedling preparation, soil preparation, and early management are introduced. A population-based species conservation strategy for N. yunnanensis may aid additional PSESP conservation, so as to contribute to overall wild plant conservation.     

Accomplishments and impact of the NGO,Island Conservation,over 15 years (1994–2009)

Improvements in biodiversity conservation are hampered by the lack of reporting on the effectiveness of conservation techniques and the organizations that implement them. Here we summarize the accomplishments and potential impact of the non-governmental organization, Island Conservation, which eradicates damaging invasive vertebrates from islands. Island Conservation has removed 54 populations of 10 invasive vertebrates from 35 islands totaling over 520 km². These actions helped protect 233 populations of 181 insular endemic species and subspecies of plants and vertebrates and 258 populations of 54 species and subspecies of seabirds from the threat of local and global extinction. There were no reinvasions. One eradication attempt failed. These conservation actions and their apparent biodiversity impact demonstrate the potential of private organizations to protect biodiversity by eradicating invasive species from islands.     

Partnering conservation actions. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Inter situ</Emphasis> solutions to recover threatened species in South West Western Australia

South West Western Australia has a rich endemic flora of global significance. The threats facing this floral diversity are increasing in type, severity and scale, demonstrated by the rising numbers of species threatened with extinction. In particular, the root-rot pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi is causing widespread destruction, threatening the survival of many of the region’s unique plants. In situ conservation of wild plants is considered the most essential component of a flora conservation program, but the ability to conserve some species adequately is often unachievable in the short term and urgent management intervention is required to prevent extinction. We present data on the status and management of wild populations of four threatened species from the region, including an ex situ program, and describe our efforts to bridge the gap between these two components. Such inter situ conservation recovery work enables monitoring of biological attributes, research into reproductive biology and collection of genetic material for further ex situ conservation, and provides the source of material for future restoration of wild populations.     

Gap analyses to support ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in Magnolia, a flagship group

Worldwide about one third of all plant species is estimated to be threatened with extinction. Plants are generally under-represented in conservation. However, the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) sets forth 16 targets to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity within a framework for actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Target 8 of the GSPC directs that at least 75 % of threatened plant species be present in ex situ collections by 2020, but this target is far from being met. By analyzing where gaps in ex situ collections and research exist relative to diversity hotspots of threatened species, it is possible to identify and prioritize action. We undertake a gap analysis of ex situ collection needs in the genus Magnolia, a relatively well-known and valuable genus. Results indicate three main areas of biodiversity (China, Vietnam and Colombia) for the endangered Magnolia taxa. The present paper provides a critical overview of recent conservation activities carried out in the genus Magnolia throughout the world, focusing on genetic diversity analyses of the species.     

Conservation breeding programmes: an important ingredient for species survival

Captive populations for the primary purpose of securing the survival of species through stable self-sustaining populations need to be founded and managed according to sound scientific principles. Given the current rate of habitat fragmentation and its effect on animal populations, species conservation over the long term increasingly will require management to reduce risk of extinction. This may include ex situ populations which can support and interact demographically and genetically with wild populations. This paper presents a review of what can be achieved through a multidisciplinary approach, involving science, interactive management, politics, environmental education, habitat preservation and habitat restoration. Examples of what conservation-oriented breeding programmes have contributed to date, what represents a viable population and what is meant by effective conservation are provided, and various scenarios for the future are discussed.     

Conservation study of endemic plants in serpentine landscapes: Antirrhinum rothmaleri (Plantaginaceae), a serpentinophyte with a restricted geographic distribution

Abstract

Assessing the conservation status of endemic species by monitoring population trends is one of the main aims of plant conservation studies. This article reports a detailed study of the distribution of Antirrhinum rothmaleri, a species endemic to the serpentine systems of Trás-os-Montes in NE Portugal (Lusitan-Duriensean biogeographical sector). The species' current distribution status, the size of its populations, and the threats it faces, measured according to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2008 Guidelines, were all assessed. The size estimates provided for the four confirmed populations were based on census data taken at the different sites. All censuses were performed by direct counting of all potentially reproductive individuals. Based on the present data, A. rothmaleri should be assigned a conservation status of “Critically Endangered” (CR). Its conservation status, according to the IUCN criteria, is mainly based on the narrow distribution, and on the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO). The risk of extinction faced by the local populations is high due to their typically very small size. Suitable conservation strategies should be developed in order to preserve the species. The present study allowed us to characterize its distribution and population size, to collect and store ex situ the germplasm in the UIRGEMP/Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal, and to investigate its ecology. The conservation status of the species requires continued monitoring of the demography of its populations. Studies on the biology of the species are also needed in order to improve its management. The present results illustrate the need to protect serpentine landscapes, which contain a range of microhabitats inhabited byendemic plants.     

Genetic diversity and structure of the endangered lady's slipper orchid Cypripedium japonicum Thunb. (Orchidaceae) in Japan

Cypripedium japonicum Thunb. (Orchidaceae), once a common perennial herb, is now designated as endangered throughout most of its distribution due to habitat destruction and fragmentation, and the impacts of horticultural collection. We investigated the genetic characteristics of this species for conservation purposes, using microsatellite markers to examine the genetic diversity and structure of 15 native and 5 ex situ populations in Japan. The results imply that although allelic variation is low in Japanese C. japonicum, sexual reproduction by seed, as well as clonal propagation, may occur in some populations. Both native and ex situ populations were found to be genetically differentiated, indicating that some populations may have experienced recent population declines, genetic fragmentation, or bottlenecks. The degree of genetic drift from the putative ancestral population, inferred through STRUCTURE analysis, was more pronounced in northern populations than in southern populations. Some of the ex situ conserved populations exhibited a low degree of differentiation from ancestral native populations. Our results imply that conservation of C. japonicum in Japan is best supported by maintaining individual populations and their unique genetic characteristics.     

Ex situ Diet Influences the Bacterial Community Associated with the Skin of Red-Eyed Tree Frogs (Agalychnis callidryas)

Amphibians support symbiotic bacterial communities on their skin that protect against a range of infectious pathogens, including the amphibian chytrid fungus. The conditions under which amphibians are maintained in captivity (e.g. diet, substrate, enrichment) in ex situ conservation programmes may affect the composition of the bacterial community. In addition, ex situ amphibian populations may support different bacterial communities in comparison to in situ populations of the same species. This could have implications for the suitability of populations intended for reintroduction, as well as the success of probiotic bacterial inoculations intended to provide amphibians with a bacterial community that resists invasion by the chytrid fungus. We aimed to investigate the effect of a carotenoid-enriched diet on the culturable bacterial community associated with captive red-eyed tree frogs (Agalychnis callidryas) and make comparisons to bacteria isolated from a wild population from the Chiquibul Rainforest in Belize. We successfully showed carotenoid availability influences the overall community composition, species richness and abundance of the bacterial community associated with the skin of captive frogs, with A. callidryas fed a carotenoid-enriched diet supporting a greater species richness and abundance of bacteria than those fed a carotenoid-free diet. Our results suggest that availability of carotenoids in the diet of captive frogs is likely to be beneficial for the bacterial community associated with the skin. We also found wild A. callidryas hosted more than double the number of different bacterial species than captive frogs with very little commonality between species. This suggests frogs in captivity may support a reduced and diverged bacterial community in comparison to wild populations of the same species, which could have particular relevance for ex situ conservation projects.     

Dramatic decline of two freshwater killifishes,main anthropogenic drivers and appropriate conservation actions

Freshwater fish biodiversity loss in the Mediterranean Basin is regarded as among the highest globally, with long-term population data sets required to discern long-term population trends of threatened species, in order to design appropriate conservation interventions. In this study, we assessed the population trends of two threatened freshwater fishes, Valencia letourneuxi and Valencia robertae, employing the most recent and largest compiled database to date (16 populations over 14 years). We applied the innovative methodology of the Living Planet Index (LPI) to assess the average rate of change over time across a set of V. letourneuxi and V. robertae populations in Greece. The LPI application revealed a dramatic decline of both species, with V. letourneuxi declining by 97.7% and V. robertae by 91.0%. Beta regression showed that water pollution, eutrophication and alien Eastern mosquitofish Gambusia holbrooki’ presence were the three best fitting predictors of the decline of V. letourneuxi and V. robertae populations. Based on the above, we outline the conservation measures urgently required to revert the near collapse of the populations of the two species. Conservation actions include the strict protection of the their lowland spring habitats, habitat improvement through changes in water management and agricultural practices, mosquitofish invasion prevention and mosquitofish impact mitigation measures, as well as translocation actions and captive breeding. Lastly, the association patterns of the proposed conservation actions with anthropogenic pressures and their expected outcomes were analysed through an alluvial diagram, providing insights on the scale of pressures mitigated by conservation actions and on their conservation benefits.     

Using genetic structure data and phylogenetic criteria in attributing prioritization scores for conservation of spontaneous Capparis spinosa L. populations from Tunisia

In Tunisia, the increasing pharmacological demand for spontaneous capers is actually leading to progressive forest overexploitation and genetic erosion of the species that is actually represented by scattered populations. Therefore, inventories with emphasis on the characterization, management and conservation of this medicinal plant are becoming a great need.In this work, genetic and phylogenetic criteria based on isozyme markers were used for the prioritization of spontaneous Capparis spinosa L. populations for conservation according to Vane-Wright and collaborators taxic method.Enzymatic loci varied in their ability to detect variation and population analyses indicated that most of the variation is partitioned between rather than within populations. Fst, gene flow values, PCA and cluster analysis also revealed significant differentiation between all populations.When combing phylogenetic and genetic criteria we were able to prioritize some of the populations for conservation. Therefore, the standardization and the summatory of all indices indicated that the populations Nebeur, Nahli and Dyr rank as a priority for conservation.So far, results of the present study appear to justify the in situ conservation strategy, where core areas completely free from perturbation would be defined for the populations with the highest priority for conservation, with the populations presenting unique alleles. This would guarantee the maintenance of most of the species’ genetic variation. The ex situ conservation management strategy would imply the setting up of specialized nurseries and national collections that are still missing in the country to counteract population fragmentation, demographic loss and genetic erosion threatening such spontaneous populations.