Biofortification of zinc in wheat grain by the application of sewage sludge

Background and aims

Increasing the concentrations of the essential micronutrient Zn in staple crops like grain is desirable for human nutrition. We investigated the long-term ability of municipal treatment works sewage sludge, liquid sewage sludge and ZnCO₃ applied to soils to increase Zn in in wheat grain (Triticum aestivum L.) in a number of field experiments conducted on different soils.

Methods

We used six long-term field experiments that were set up on contrasting soils in England and the target applications were built up between 1994 and 1997. Topsoil samples and harvested grain samples were taken and air dried in 1999, 2001, 2003 and 2005. Relationships between grain Zn concentrations and soil properties and changes with time were examined.

Results

Wheat grain Zn concentrations increased with soil Zn concentrations in a similar log-log relationship with all of the Zn sources tested. Comparing total or extractable Zn in soil as explanatory factors showed little benefit of using extractable Zn measurements to predict grain concentrations over total Zn. Additional factors such as soil pH or organic carbon did not explain much more of the variation in grain Zn in our experiments. However, grain Zn concentrations did not respond at all at a site with pH 7.7.

Conclusions

Sewage sludge applications to soil can increase grain Zn concentrations for at least 2 to 8?years after application and has similar effectiveness to ZnCO₃.     

An overview of rhizosphere processes related with plant nutrition in major cropping systems in China

Rhizosphere processes of individual plants have been widely investigated since 1904 when the term “rhizosphere” was first put forward. However, little attention has been paid to rhizosphere effects at an agro-ecosystem level. This paper presents recent research on the rhizosphere processes in relation to plant nutrition in main cropping systems in China. In the peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)/maize (Zea mays L.) intercropping system, maize was found to improve the Fe nutrition of peanut through influencing its rhizosphere processes, suggesting an important role of phytosiderophores released from Fe-deficient maize. Intercropping between maize and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) was found to improve nitrogen and phosphorus uptake in the two crops compared with corresponding sole crop. There was a higher land equivalent ratio (LER) in the intercropping system of maize and faba bean than the treatment of no root interactions between the two crops. The increased yield of maize intercropped with faba bean resulted from an interspecific facilitation in nutrient uptake, depending on interspecific root interactions of the two crops. In the rotation system of rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crops, Mn deficiency in wheat was caused by excessive Mn uptake by rice and Mn leaching from topsoil to subsoil due to periodic cycles of flooding and drying. However, wheat genotypes tolerant to Mn deficiency tended to distribute more roots to deeper soil layer and thus expand their rhizosphere zones in the Mn-deficient soils and utilize Mn from the subsoil. Deep ploughing also helped root penetration into subsoil and was propitious to correcting Mn deficiency in wheat rotated with rice. In comparison, oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) took up more Mn than wheat through mobilizing sparingly soluble soil Mn due to acidification and reduction processes in the rhizosphere. Thus, oilseed rape was tolerant to the Mn-deficient conditions in the rice-oilseed rape rotation. Oxidation reactions on root surface of rice also resulted in the formation of Fe plaque in the rice rhizosphere. Large amounts of Zn were accumulated on the Fe plaque. Zinc uptake by rice plants increased as Fe plaque formed, but decreased at high amounts of Fe plaque. It is suggested that to fine-tune cropping patterns and optimize nutrient management based on a better understanding of rhizosphere processes at an agro-ecosystem level is crucial for increasing nutrient use efficiency and developing sustainable agriculture in China.     

Trace elements bioavailability to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown subsequent to high biomass plants in a greenhouse study

Multielement-contaminated agricultural land requires the adaptation of agronomic practices to meet legal requirements for safe biomass production. The incorporation of bioenergy plants with, at least, moderate phytoextraction capacity into crop rotations with cereals can affect trace elements (TE) phytoavailability and, simultaneously, constitute economic revenues for farmers outside the food or forage sector. Hence, in a crop rotation pot study sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), modified for high biomass and TE accumulation by chemical mutagenesis, was compared to winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) as pre-crop. On two agricultural soils with different TE loads, the crops´ potential for phytoextraction and for impacts on TE uptake by subsequent winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was studied. The results showed that rape tolerated high-level mixed contamination with metals (Cd, Pb and Zn) and As more than sunflower. In both soils, labile metals concentration increased and soil acidity remained high following sunflower. Furthermore, enhanced grain As accumulation in subsequent wheat was observed. By contrast, soil acidity and Cd or Zn accumulation of subsequent wheat decreased following rape. In the short term, moderate phytoextraction was superimposed by nutrient use or rhizosphere effects of pre-crops, which should be carefully monitored when designing crop rotations for contaminated land.     

Short-term effects on soil properties and wheat production from secondary paper sludge application on two Mediterranean agricultural soils

This study was conducted under greenhouse conditions to evaluate the potential use of SPS as a fertilizer, amendment and/or liming agent for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Two representative Mediterranean agricultural soils, a Cambic Arenosol (cmAR) and a Cromic Cambisol (crCM) were used. Treatments included four sludge rates ranging from 0 to 40 g kg(-1) (equivalent of 0, 38, 88 and 120 Mg ha(-1)). A significant increment in soil pH, organic carbon, N total, available P and exchangeable K were observed in both soils. Sludge application significantly increased N and decreased Zn, Mn and Cu concentrations in wheat. Wheat grain yields were reduced by 33% and 37% when 120 Mg SPS ha(-1) was applied to cmAR and crCM soils, respectively, due apparently to unavailability of Mg. However, straw yields, with much lower Mg requirements, increased significantly with SPS rates. Secondary pulp mill sludge seems to be a potential source of organic matter, N, P, K and a potential soil amendment liming agent for acid soils, when appropriate supplemental fertilizer was provided. For grain crops grown in these soils, addition of Mg is required for proper nutrient balance.     

Stable Carbon Isotope Evidence for Neolithic and Bronze Age Crop Water Management in the Eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia

In a large study on early crop water management, stable carbon isotope discrimination was determined for 275 charred grain samples from nine archaeological sites, dating primarily to the Neolithic and Bronze Age, from the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia. This has revealed that wheat (Triticum spp.) was regularly grown in wetter conditions than barley (Hordeum sp.), indicating systematic preferential treatment of wheat that may reflect a cultural preference for wheat over barley. Isotopic analysis of pulse crops (Lens culinaris, Pisum sativum and Vicia ervilia) indicates cultivation in highly varied water conditions at some sites, possibly as a result of opportunistic watering practices. The results have also provided evidence for local land-use and changing agricultural practices.     

Effects of rhizobial inoculation, cropping systems and growth stages on endophytic bacterial community of soybean roots

Interspecific interactions and soil nitrogen supply levels affect intercropping productivity. We hypothesized that interspecific competition can be alleviated by increasing N application rate and yield advantage can be obtained in competitive systems. A field experiment was conducted in Wuwei, Gansu province in 2007 and 2008 to study intercropping of faba bean/maize, wheat/maize, barley/maize and the corresponding monocultures of faba bean (Vicia faba L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) with N application rates of 0, 75, 150, 225 and 300 kg N ha^?1. Total land equivalent ratios (TLER) were 1.22 for faba bean/maize, 1.16 for wheat/maize, and 1.13 for barley/maize intercropping over the 2-year study period. Maize was overyielding when intercropped with faba bean, but underyielding when intercropped with wheat or barley according to partial land equivalent ratios (PLER) based on grain yields of individual crops in intercropping and sole cropping. There was an interspecific facilitation between intercropped faba bean and maize, and interspecific competition between maize and either wheat or barley. The underyielding of maize was higher when intercropped with barley than with wheat. Fertilizer N alleviated competitive interactions in intercrops with adequate fertilizer N at 225 kg ha^?1. Yield advantage of intercropping can be acquired with adequate nitrogen supply, even in an intensive competitive system such as barley/maize intercropping. This is important when using intercropping to develop intensive farming systems with high inputs and high outputs.     

Initial crop growth in soil collected from a closed animal waste lagoon

In the 21st century, remediation of the soil beneath animal waste lagoons will become an important issue, as they are closed due to environmental regulations or to abandonment. The possibility of growing crops in the soil, which has high concentrations of ammonium-N, has not been studied. The objective of this experiment was to determine if crop species would germinate and grow in lagoon soil. Soil was gathered from a lagoon that had received wastes from swine (Sus scrofa) and beef (Bos taurus) since 1968. Eight crops were grown in greenhouse pots containing the lagoon soil: winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 'Weskan'); field corn (Zea mays L., Cargill's hybrid 7997); 'Plainsman' winter rapeseed [Brassica napus L. spp. oleifera (Metzg.) Sinsk. f. biennis]; soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. 'KS 4694'); forage sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench 'Norkan']; sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. 'Hysun 354'); and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)--two cultivars: '2137' and 'Turkey.' Plants were grown for 35 days in lagoon soil or an agricultural soil (Haynie very fine sandy loam; coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, calcareous, mesic Mollic Udifluvent) obtained from a field near the closed lagoon. Ammonium-N (average value of 692 mg/kg) was about 70-85 times greater than the average value of 8-10 mg/kg NH4-N in Kansan soils. The lagoon soil was nonsodic and had a salinity ranking of "medium" with an electrical conductivity averaging 2.29 dS/m. The high ammonium-N concentration in the lagoon soil was not inhibitory to emergence and growth. The eight crops grew taller in the lagoon soil than in the agricultural soil. Except for '2137' wheat, dry weight was higher in the lagoon soil than in the agricultural soil. The results showed that the lagoon soil is not detrimental to early growth of eight crops.     

Transgenic barley: A prospective tool for biotechnology and agriculture

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is one of the founder crops of agriculture, and today it is the fourth most important cereal grain worldwide. Barley is used as malt in brewing and distilling industry, as an additive for animal feed, and as a component of various food and bread for human consumption. Progress in stable genetic transformation of barley ensures a potential for improvement of its agronomic performance or use of barley in various biotechnological and industrial applications. Recently, barley grain has been successfully used in molecular farming as a promising bioreactor adapted for production of human therapeutic proteins or animal vaccines. In addition to development of reliable transformation technologies, an extensive amount of various barley genetic resources and tools such as sequence data, microarrays, genetic maps, and databases has been generated. Current status on barley transformation technologies including gene transfer techniques, targets, and progeny stabilization, recent trials for improvement of agricultural traits and performance of barley, especially in relation to increased biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and potential use of barley grain as a protein production platform have been reviewed in this study. Overall, barley represents a promising tool for both agricultural and biotechnological transgenic approaches, and is considered an ancient but rediscovered crop as a model industrial platform for molecular farming.     

Grain zinc, iron and protein concentrations and zinc-efficiency in wild emmer wheat under contrasting irrigation regimes

Micronutrient malnutrition, and particularly deficiency in zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe), afflicts over three billion people worldwide, and nearly half of the world’s cereal-growing area is affected by soil Zn deficiency. Wild emmer wheat [Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides (Körn.) Thell.], the progenitor of domesticated durum wheat and bread wheat, offers a valuable source of economically important genetic diversity including grain mineral concentrations. Twenty two wild emmer wheat accessions, representing a wide range of drought resistance capacity, as well as two durum wheat cultivars were examined under two contrasting irrigation regimes (well-watered control and water-limited), for grain yield, total biomass production and grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations. The wild emmer accessions exhibited high genetic diversity for yield and grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations under both irrigation regimes, with a considerable potential for improvement of the cultivated wheat. Grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations were positively correlated with one another. Although irrigation regime significantly affected ranking of genotypes, a few wild emmer accessions were identified for their advantage over durum wheat, having consistently higher grain Zn (e.g., 125 mg kg^?1), Fe (85 mg kg^?1) and protein (250 g kg^?1) concentrations and high yield capacity. Plants grown from seeds originated from both irrigation regimes were also examined for Zn efficiency (Zn deficiency tolerance) on a Zn-deficient calcareous soil. Zinc efficiency, expressed as the ratio of shoot dry matter production under Zn deficiency to Zn fertilization, showed large genetic variation among the genotypes tested. The source of seeds from maternal plants grown under both irrigation regimes had very little effect on Zn efficiency. Several wild emmer accessions revealed combination of high Zn efficiency and drought stress resistance. The results indicate high genetic potential of wild emmer wheat to improve grain Zn, Fe and protein concentrations, Zn deficiency tolerance and drought resistance in cultivated wheat.     

Complementarity in root architecture for nutrient uptake in ancient maize/bean and maize/bean/squash polycultures

Background and Aims

During their domestication, maize, bean and squash evolved in polycultures grown by small-scale farmers in the Americas. Polycultures often overyield on low-fertility soils, which are a primary production constraint in low-input agriculture. We hypothesized that root architectural differences among these crops causes niche complementarity and thereby greater nutrient acquisition than corresponding monocultures.

Methods

A functional–structural plant model, SimRoot, was used to simulate the first 40 d of growth of these crops in monoculture and polyculture and to determine the effects of root competition on nutrient uptake and biomass production of each plant on low-nitrogen, -phosphorus and -potassium soils.

Key Results

Squash, the earliest domesticated crop, was most sensitive to low soil fertility, while bean, the most recently domesticated crop, was least sensitive to low soil fertility. Nitrate uptake and biomass production were up to 7 % greater in the polycultures than in the monocultures, but only when root architecture was taken into account. Enhanced nitrogen capture in polycultures was independent of nitrogen fixation by bean. Root competition had negligible effects on phosphorus or potassium uptake or biomass production.

Conclusions

We conclude that spatial niche differentiation caused by differences in root architecture allows polycultures to overyield when plants are competing for mobile soil resources. However, direct competition for immobile resources might be negligible in agricultural systems. Interspecies root spacing may also be too large to allow maize to benefit from root exudates of bean or squash. Above-ground competition for light, however, may have strong feedbacks on root foraging for immobile nutrients, which may increase cereal growth more than it will decrease the growth of the other crops. We note that the order of domestication of crops correlates with increasing nutrient efficiency, rather than production potential.     

Plant maintenance and environmental stress. Summarising the effects of contrasting elevation,soil, and latitude on Quercus ilex respiration rates

Aims

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are major staple food crops consumed worldwide. Zinc (Zn) deficiency represents a common micronutrient deficiency in human populations, especially in regions of the world where staple food crops are the main source of daily calorie intake. Foliar application of Zn fertilizer has been shown to be effective for enriching food crop grains with Zn to desirable amounts for human nutrition. For promoting adoption of this practice by growers, it is important to know whether foliar Zn fertilizers can be applied along with pesticides to wheat, rice and also common bean grown across different soil and environmental conditions.

Methods

The feasibility of foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄.7H₂O) to wheat, rice and common bean in combination with commonly used five fungicides and nine insecticides was investigated under field conditions at the 31 sites-years of seven countries, i.e., China, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Turkey, Brazil and Zambia.

Results

Significant increases in grain yields were observed with foliar Zn/foliar Zn?+?pesticide (5.2–7.7 % of wheat and 1.6–4.2 % of rice) over yields with no Zn treatment. In wheat, as average of all experiments, higher grain Zn concentrations were recorded with foliar Zn alone (41.2 mg kg^?1) and foliar Zn?+?pesticide (38.4 mg kg^?1) as compared to no Zn treatment (28.0 mg kg^?1). Though the magnitude of grain Zn enrichment was lesser in rice than wheat, grain Zn concentrations in brown rice were significantly higher with foliar Zn (24.1 mg kg^?1) and foliar Zn?+?pesticide (23.6 mg kg^?1) than with no Zn (19.1 mg kg^?1). In case of common bean, grain Zn concentration increased from 68 to 78 mg kg^?1 with foliar Zn alone and to 77 mg kg^?1 with foliar Zn applied in combination with pesticides. Thus, grain Zn enrichment with foliar Zn, without or with pesticides, was almost similar in all the tested crops.

Conclusions

The results obtained at the 31 experimental site-years of seven countries revealed that foliar Zn fertilization can be realized in combination with commonly-applied pesticides to contribute Zn biofortification of grains in wheat, rice and common bean. This agronomic approach represents a useful practice for the farmers to alleviate Zn deficiency problem in human populations.

     

不同类型土壤小麦-水稻轮作体系施用含重金属污泥的环境效应

采用贵州黄壤、石灰土和浙江水稻土,通过盆栽试验探讨了在3种土壤上施用含不同浓度重金属的污泥对小麦、水稻生长及锌(Zn)镉(Cd)吸收性的影响.结果表明： 不同土壤施用同种污泥所产生的重金属污染风险不同,在黄壤和水稻土上施用高浓度重金属污泥对作物的污染风险较高.一次施用Zn、Cd浓度分别为1789、8.47 mg·kg-1的污泥1.6%,使黄壤小麦籽粒中Zn、Cd浓度分别达109、0.08 mg·kg-1;第二次施用后种植水稻,糙米中Zn、Cd浓度达52.0、0.54 mg·kg-1.而施用污泥后石灰性土壤的两种作物其可食部分均无重金属污染风险.土壤醋酸铵提取态Zn是影响麦粒和糙米中Zn浓度的主要因素,而土壤醋酸铵提取态Cd对麦粒和糙米中Cd浓度无明显影响.施用高浓度重金属污泥使3种土壤Zn、Cd全量显著提高,且两次施用后土壤全量Zn均超过国家土壤环境质量二级标准.     

<Emphasis Type="Bold">Zinc nutrition in wheat-based cropping systems</Emphasis>

Background

Zinc (Zn) deficiency is one of the most important micronutrient disorders affecting human health. Wheat is the staple food for 35% of the world’s population and is inherently low in Zn, which increases the incidence of Zn deficiency in humans. Major wheat-based cropping systems viz. rice–wheat, cotton–wheat and maize–wheat are prone to Zn deficiency due to the high Zn demand of these crops.

Methods

This review highlights the role of Zn in plant biology and its effect on wheat-based cropping systems. Agronomic, breeding and molecular approaches to improve Zn nutrition and biofortification of wheat grain are discussed.

Results

Zinc is most often applied to crops through soil and foliar methods. The application of Zn through seed treatments has improved grain yield and grain Zn status in wheat. In cropping systems where legumes are cultivated in rotation with wheat, microorganisms can improve the available Zn pool in soil for the wheat crop. Breeding and molecular approaches have been used to develop wheat genotypes with high grain Zn density.

Conclusions

Options for improving grain yield and grain Zn concentration in wheat include screening wheat genotypes for higher root Zn uptake and grain translocation efficiency, the inclusion of these Zn-efficient genotypes in breeding programs, and Zn fertilization through soil, foliar and seed treatments.

     

Soil profile gravel concentration and its effect on rainfed crop yields

Summary Soil characteristics in the crop root zone are critical to soil water and nutrient availability to rainfed crops and determine crop production in coarse textured soils. A four-year field study was conducted in the foot-hills of North Himalayas near Chandigarh (India) on a coarse textured soil (Gravelly udic ustocrepts) to evaluate the effect of varying soil profile gravel concentration on the yield of rainfed crops of Taramira (Eruca sativa Mill.) in winter followed by maize (Zea mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare Pers.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) in summer. Taramira gave a mean grain yield of 683, 410 and 275 kg ha^–1 at gravel concentration (GC) of 18, 28 and 40 percent by volume in the surface one metre soil depth. The grain and forage yield of summer crops decreased with the increasing GC. The gross monetary returns decreased in the order: Sorghum fodder, cowpea, sesamum and maize. The dilution of soil mass with increasing GC and corresponding decrease in nutrient and water holding capacity of the soil appears to have depressed the crop yields. The results indicated that the legume which can also conserve rainwater with dense canopy like cowpea or crops having vigorous fibrous root system and are relatively drought tolerant like sorghum may provide better economic returns in light textured soil containing gravel upto 40 percent.     

Environmental causes and consequences of forest clearance and agricultural abandonment in central New York, USA

Aim Climate, topography and soils drive many patterns of plant distribution and abundance across landscapes, but current plant communities may also reflect a legacy of past disturbance such as agricultural land use. To assess the relative influences of environmental conditions and disturbance history on vegetation, it is important to understand how these forces interact. This study relates the geographical distribution of land uses to variation in topography and soils; evaluates the consequences of land‐use decisions for current forests; and examines the effects of agricultural land use on the chemical properties of forest soils. Location Tompkins County occupies 1250 km² in central New York's Finger Lakes region. Like much of eastern North America, this area underwent forest clearance for agriculture during the 1800s and widespread field abandonment and forest recovery during the 1900s. The current landscape consists of a patchwork of forests that were never cleared, forests that developed on old fields and active agricultural lands. Methods We investigated relationships among topography, soils and land‐use decisions by gathering information about land‐use history, slope, aspect, elevation, soil lime content, soil drainage and accessibility in a geographic information system (GIS). To assess the effects of agriculture on forest soil chemistry, we measured pH, organic matter content and extractable nutrient concentrations in field‐collected soil samples from 47 post‐agricultural and uncleared forests. Results Steeper slopes, less accessible lands and lower‐lime soils tended to remain forested, and farmers were more likely to abandon fields that were steeper, farther from roads, lower in lime and more poorly drained. Slope had by far the greatest impact on patterns of clearance and abandonment, and accessibility had a surprisingly strong influence on the distribution of land uses. The effects of other factors varied more, depending for example on location within the county. Current forest types differed accordingly in topography and soil attributes, particularly slope, but they also showed much overlap. Post‐agricultural and uncleared forest soils had similar chemical properties. Forests on lands abandoned from agriculture 80–100 years before had slightly higher pH and nutrient concentrations than adjacent, uncleared forests, but these changes were small compared to environmental variation across the county. Main conclusions Despite differential use of lands according to their topography and soils, the substantial influence of accessibility and the relatively small scale of land‐use decisions allowed for broad similarity among forest types. Thus, the topography and soil differences created by land‐use decisions probably contribute little to landscape‐level patterns of diversity. Subtle changes in forest soil chemistry left from past agriculture may nevertheless affect plant distribution and abundance at finer scales.     

Intensive agriculture and land use at Roman Gordion,central Turkey

Few archaeobotanical studies of Roman agricultural practices and their environmental impact in Anatolia (modern Turkey) have been published. New data from Roman levels at Gordion, a multi-period urban centre in central Anatolia, indicate that free-threshing wheat, most likely Triticum aestivum (bread wheat), was the focus of agricultural practice, in contrast to earlier periods when a more diverse agricultural system included greater amounts of barley and pulses. Evidence for increased levels of irrigation and wood fuel use relative to dung, along with regional overgrazing, provide further evidence for significant change in land-use practices during the Roman period. The emphasis on T. aestivum cultivation coupled with extensive grazing had significant environmental implications, leading to severe overgrazing and soil erosion on a regional scale. Historical sources and limited data from other Roman period sites suggest that similar patterns of agriculture may have been practiced across central Anatolia during the Roman period. We propose that this may have been due to externally imposed demands for taxation or military tribute in the form of wheat, and conclude that these demands led to the adoption of an unsustainable agricultural system at Gordion.     

The biology, ecology, and harmfulness of the flea-beetle Chaetocnema aridula Gill (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) in the forest-steppe of the middle Volga Area

In the forest-steppe of Samara Province, Chaetocnema aridula Gill. dominates among all the species of Chaetocnema Steph. found in cereal crops. The species develops mainly on winter wheat, and, to a lesser extent, on spring wheat and barley. In autumn, adult beetles aggregate on millet for pre-hibernation feeding. The highest population density of Ch. aridula was observed in the humid and warm 1997 and the lowest one, in the extremely dry 1998. In late April-the first third of May, adults begin oviposition after wintering. Larvae appear in winter and spring wheat in mid-May and in late May-early June, respectively. Larvae pupate in winter wheat, beginning from mid-June; in spring crops, pupation begins in mid-June. Adults of a new generation emerge between the middle of June and the middle of July. In spring crops, development of Ch. aridula finishes 2–3 weeks later than in winter crops. Larvae penetrate shoots in the upper soil level in the tillering zone. 50–80% of wheat and barley plants are damaged by larvae. In damaged plants, the number of shoots increases by 1.2–5.8 times, and the number of productive shoots decreases to 17–68%. In plants damaged by flea-beetles, harvest losses constitute 62–90% and 5–20% in winter and spring wheat crops, respectively, and the total harvest loss constitutes 0.3–3.9 and 1–15%, respectively.     

Analysis of water- and nitrogen-use efficiency of wheat in a Mediterranean climate

Water-use efficiency (WUE [g grain yield m^–2 mm^–1 ET]) and nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE [ g grain yield g^–1 N_applied]) are important measures that can affect the productivity of crops in different environmental systems. However, measurement and interpretation of WUE and NUE in the field are often hampered by the high degree of complexity of these systems due to season-to-season variability in rainfall, the variation in crop responses to soil types and to agronomic management. To be able to guide agronomic practice, experimentally-derived measurements of WUE and NUE need to be extrapolated across time and space through appropriate modelling. To illustrate this approach, the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM), which has been rigorously tested for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a Mediterranean environment, was used to estimate and analyse the WUE and NUE of wheat crops in the Mediterranean-climatic region of the central Western Australian agricultural zone. The APSIM model was run for three locations (average annual rainfall of 461 mm [high rainfall zone], 386 mm [medium] and 310 mm [low]) and two soil types that had contrasting plant-available water-holding capacities in the rooting zone (sand: 55 mm, clay soil: 109 mm). Simulations were carried out with historical weather records (82–87 years) assuming current crop management and cultivars. The modelling analyses highlighted the inherently high degree of seasonal variability in yield, WUE and NUE of wheat, depending on soil type, N fertiliser input, rainfall amount and, in particular, rainfall distribution. The clay soil tended to be more productive in terms of grain yield, WUE and NUE in the high and medium rainfall zones, but less productive in most years in the low rainfall zone. The sandy soil was less productive in the high rainfall zone due to the high nitrate leaching potential of this soil type, but more productive than the clay in the low rainfall zone due to poorer pre-anthesis growth and less water use, less water loss by soil evaporation and relatively more water use in the post-anthesis phase. When a wheat crop was sown early on clay soil in the low rainfall zone, it yielded as high as in the other rainfall zones in seasons when rainfall was above average or there was a good store of water in the soil prior to sowing. The simulations confirmed findings from a limited number of field experiments and extended these findings both qualitatively and quantitatively across soil types, rainfall regions and crop management options. Furthermore, by using long-term historical weather records, the simulations extended the findings across the wide range of climatic scenarios experienced in mediterranean-climatic regions.     

Heavy metals accumulation and distribution in durum wheat and barley grown in contaminated soils under Mediterranean field conditions

Abstract

In the framework of a phytoremediation project in the Apulia region (Italy) a field experiment was carried out in multi-metal contaminated soils. The accumulation and distribution of metals in different plant parts of durum wheat and barley were studied. Further, the application of Bacillus licheniformis strain BLMB1 to soil was evaluated as a means to enhance metal accumulation in plants. The translocation and the bioconcentration factors indicated that wheat and barley do not act as metal accumulators in the field conditions tested, thus phytoextraction by these species would not be recommended as a soil remediation alternative. Application of B. licheniformis improved the accumulation of all metals in roots of wheat and barley, and increased Cd, Cr, and Pb contents in the shoots of barley. Low health risk for humans and animals was evaluated to exist if straw and grain from both cereal crops grown in these contaminated sites are consumed.     

Heavy metal contamination in vegetables grown around peri-urban and urban-industrial clusters in Ghaziabad,India

Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils resulting from rapid industrialization and urbanization is of great concern because of potential health risk due to dietary intake of contaminated vegetables. The present study aims to evaluate the status of heavy metals contamination of agricultural soils and food crops around an urban-industrial region in India. Transfer factor values of Cu, Cr, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Ni from soil to vegetable was estimated. The mean heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) in agricultural soils (Cu: 17.8, Cr: 27.3, Pb: 29.8, Cd: 0.43, Zn: 87, Mn: 306.6, Fe: 16984, and Ni: 53.8) were within allowable concentrations for Indian agricultural soil. The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Zn, and Ni in crops/vegetables exceeded the World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization safe limits. Relative orders of transfer of metals from soil to edible parts of the crops/vegetables were Cd > Pb > Ni > Zn > Cu > Cr. The enrichment factors of heavy metals in soil indicated minor to moderately severe enrichment for Pb, Cd, and Ni; minor to moderate enrichment for Zn; no enrichment to minor enrichment for Mn; and no enrichment to moderate enrichment for Cu at different sites. Ecological risk index of soil showed considerable contamination in one of the wastewater irrigated sites.