Obesity and Hepatic Steatosis Are Associated with Elevated Serum Amyloid Beta in Metabolically Stressed APPswe/PS1dE9 Mice

Diabesity-associated metabolic stresses modulate the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). For further insights into the underlying mechanisms, we examine whether the genetic background of APPswe/PS1dE9 at the prodromal stage of AD affects peripheral metabolism in the context of diabesity. We characterized APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice treated with a combination of high-fat diet with streptozotocin (HFSTZ) in the early stage of AD. HFSTZ-treated APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice exhibited worse metabolic stresses related to diabesity, while serum β-amyloid levels were elevated and hepatic steatosis became apparent. Importantly, two-way analysis of variance shows a significant interaction between HFSTZ and genetic background of AD, indicating that APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice are more vulnerable to HFSTZ treatment. In addition, body weight gain, high hepatic triglyceride, and hyperglycemia were positively associated with serum β-amyloid, as validated by Pearson’s correlation analysis. Our data suggests that the interplay between genetic background of AD and HFSTZ-induced metabolic stresses contributes to the development of obesity and hepatic steatosis. Alleviating metabolic stresses including dysglycemia, obesity, and hepatic steatosis could be critical to prevent peripheral β-amyloid accumulation at the early stage of AD.     

Cardiomyocyte Contractile Dysfunction in the APPswe/PS1dE9 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Objectives

Ample clinical and experimental evidence indicated that patients with Alzheimer''s disease display a high incidence of cardiovascular events. This study was designed to examine myocardial histology, cardiomyocyte shortening, intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis and regulatory proteins, electrocardiogram, adrenergic response, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and protein carbonyl formation in C57 wild-type (WT) mice and an APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic (APP/PS1) model for Alzheimer''s disease.

Methods

Cardiomyocyte mechanical properties were evaluated including peak shortening (PS), time-to-PS (TPS), time-to-relengthening (TR), maximal velocity of shortening and relengthening (±dL/dt), intracellular Ca²⁺ transient rise and decay.

Results

Little histological changes were observed in APP/PS1 myocardium. Cardiomyocytes from APP/PS1 but not APP or PS1 single mutation mice exhibited depressed PS, reduced±dL/dt, normal TPS and TR compared with WT mice_. Rise in intracellular Ca²⁺ was lower accompanied by unchanged resting/peak intracellular Ca²⁺ levels and intracellular Ca²⁺ decay in APP/PS1 mice. Cardiomyocytes from APP/PS1 mice exhibited a steeper decline in PS at high frequencies. The responsiveness to adrenergic agonists was dampened although β₁-adrenergic receptor expression was unchanged in APP/PS1 hearts. Expression of the Ca²⁺ regulatory protein phospholamban and protein carbonyl formation were downregulated and elevated, respectively, associated with unchanged SERCA2a, Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger and ER stress markers in APP/PS1 hearts. Our further study revealed that antioxidant N-acetylcysteine attenuated the contractile dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice.

Conclusions

Our results depicted overt cardiomyocyte mechanical dysfunction in the APP/PS1 Alzheimer''s disease model, possibly due to oxidative stress.     

APPswe/PS1dE9转基因小鼠小脑内突触素及BDNF/Trk-B蛋白表达的变化

目的：观察APP/PS1转基因小鼠小脑突触素及BDNF/Trk-B蛋白表达变化。方法：选用9月龄APP/PS1雄鼠（n1）和同窝对照野生型WT雄鼠（n2）。采用Western blot （n1=6;n2=6）、免疫组化（n1=4;n2=4）两种方式定量、定位测定小脑组织功能活性依赖蛋白突触素、脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）和其高亲和力受体（Trk-B）的蛋白表达。用透射电镜观察小脑皮质突触超微结构变化（n1=2;n2=2）。结果：与WT组相比,APP/PS1组小脑皮质内突触素、BDNF/Trk-B表达明显减少;突触间隙增宽,突触后致密区变薄,密度降低。结论：APP/PS1小鼠小脑皮质中突触素、BDNF/Trk-B蛋白含量均明显降低,突触超微结构也发生明显改变,提示AD小脑突触数量及形态变化可能与BDNF合成及释放减少有关。     

Vitamin D2-Enriched Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Improves Memory in Both Wild Type and APPswe/PS1dE9 Transgenic Mice

Vitamin D deficiency is widespread, affecting over 30% of adult Australians, and increasing up to 80% for at-risk groups including the elderly (age>65). The role for Vitamin D in development of the central nervous system is supported by the association between Vitamin D deficiency and incidence of neurological and psychiatric disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A reported positive relationship between Vitamin D status and cognitive performance suggests that restoring Vitamin D status might provide a cognitive benefit to those with Vitamin D deficiency. Mushrooms are a rich source of ergosterol, which can be converted to Vitamin D₂ by treatment with UV light, presenting a new and convenient dietary source of Vitamin D₂. We hypothesised that Vitamin D₂-enriched mushrooms (VDM) could prevent the cognitive and pathological abnormalities associated with dementia. Two month old wild type (B6C3) and AD transgenic (APP_Swe/PS1dE9) mice were fed a diet either deficient in Vitamin D₂ or a diet which was supplemented with VDM, containing 1±0.2 µg/kg (∼54 IU/kg) vitamin D₂, for 7 months. Effects of the dietary intervention on memory were assessed pre- and post-feeding. Brain sections were evaluated for amyloid β (Aβ) plaque loads and inflammation biomarkers using immuno-histochemical methods. Plasma vitamin D metabolites, Aβ40, Aβ42, calcium, protein and cholesterol were measured using biochemical assays. Compared with mice on the control diet, VDM-fed wild type and AD transgenic mice displayed improved learning and memory, had significantly reduced amyloid plaque load and glial fibrillary acidic protein, and elevated interleukin-10 in the brain. The results suggest that VDM might provide a dietary source of Vitamin D₂ and other bioactives for preventing memory-impairment in dementia. This study supports the need for a randomised clinical trial to determine whether or not VDM consumption can benefit cognitive performance in the wider population.     

APPswe／PS1dE9／TAU三转基因阿尔兹海默病大鼠模型的建立

目的大鼠的大脑比小鼠更大,是研究神经系统的重要模型。建立APPswe／PS1dE9／TAU三转基因大鼠,发展能更全面表现人类阿尔兹海默病表型的动物模型。方法构建人PrP—hAPP695K595N／M596L、PrP-hPS1dE9和PDGF-TAU转基因表达载体,显微注射法制备转基因大鼠。PCR法鉴定转基因首建鼠及其子代基因型。Western blot检测转基因大鼠脑组织中人APP、PS1和TAU蛋白的表达。Morris水迷宫检测6月龄三转基因大鼠学习记忆能力改变。APP、PHF—TAU免疫组织化学染色观察三转基因大鼠脑组织APP及TAU的表达。结果得到1个同时高表达人APP、PS1和TAU三个基因的转基因大鼠品系。转基因大鼠6月龄已经出现显著的行为学改变：学习记忆能力下降,病理学改变表现为过度磷酸化TAU增多和神经元胞浆内AB表达异常增加。结论成功建立了APPswe／PS1dE9／TAU三转AD大鼠,可做为新一代工具动物模型用于基础医学和AD转化医学研究。     

Intranasal insulin alleviates cognitive deficits and amyloid pathology in young adult APPswe/PS1dE9 mice

Brain insulin signaling deficits contribute to multiple pathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although intranasal insulin has shown efficacy in patients with AD, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unillustrated. Here, we demonstrate that intranasal insulin improves cognitive deficits, ameliorates defective brain insulin signaling, and strongly reduces β‐amyloid (Aβ) production and plaque formation after 6 weeks of treatment in 4.5‐month‐old APPswe/PS1dE9 (APP/PS1) mice. Furthermore, c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase activation, which plays a pivotal role in insulin resistance and AD pathologies, is significantly inhibited. The alleviation of amyloid pathology by intranasal insulin results mainly from enhanced nonamyloidogenic processing and compromised amyloidogenic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP), and from a reduction in apolipoprotein E protein which is involved in Aβ metabolism. In addition, intranasal insulin effectively promotes hippocampal neurogenesis in APP/PS1 mice. This study, exploring the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of intranasal insulin on Aβ pathologies in vivo for the first time, highlights important preclinical evidence that intranasal insulin is potentially an effective therapeutic method for the prevention and treatment of AD.     

心肌细胞内质网应激介导APPswe/PS1dE9转基因成年小鼠发生心肌肥厚的研究

目的:探讨内质网应激在APPswe/PS1dE9转基因成年小鼠发生心肌肥厚中的作用。方法:选择APPswe/PS1dE9转基因成年小鼠及野生型(WT)成年小鼠各10只,分别为转基因实验组及对照组、野生型实验组及对照组,每组各5只,实验组背部皮下注射低剂量异丙肾上腺素(ISO)(2 mg/kg),每日1次,连续4周;对照组注射同等体积的生理盐水,4周后麻醉各组小鼠,描记体表心电图,计算心率,测量体重后处死,取出心脏,测量心脏质量及左室质量,计算左心室重量指数(LVW/BW)及全心重量比(HW/BW)。用于HE染色法测定心肌细胞病理形态学变化,应用Western Blot方法及免疫组织化学方法检测内质网应激相关蛋白即GRP78、JNK、P-JNK及CaMKⅡ的表达。结果:APPswe/PS1dE9转基因小鼠在低剂量的ISO诱导后较WT小鼠心脏明显肥大,APPswe/PS1dE9转基因实验组较转基因对照组及WT小鼠实验组及对照组HW/BW及LVW/BW显著增加(P0.05);HE染色可见APPswe/PS1dE9转基因实验组较转基因对照组及WT实验组、对照组心肌细胞直径明显变大,细胞密度变小,毛细血管密度减少,细胞间质增多,细胞间距变大。Western blot结果显示APPswe/PS1dE9转基因实验组GRP78、p-JNK及CaMKⅡ的表达较转基因对照组及WT两组明显增加(P0.05,P0.01),而转基因对照组与WT两组无明显差异。免疫组化结果显示APPswe/PS1dE9转基因实验组GRP78及CaMKⅡ蛋白在心肌细胞胞浆中表达阳性率80%,明显高于野生型实验组(40%)(P0.05),两组对照组表达均为阴性;转基因实验组p-JNK表达为90%,JNK表达为30%,其它三组均为阴性。结论:APPswe/PS1dE9转基因成年小鼠在较低剂量的ISO诱导后较WT实验组更容易出现心肌肥厚,内质网应激参与了APPswe/PS1dE9转基因成年小鼠心肌肥厚的发生。     

MicroPET观察姜黄素对APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠脑葡萄糖代谢的影响

目的利用18氟-脱氧葡萄糖microPET(18F-FDG microPET)影像学技术观察正常对照组小鼠,模型组和姜黄素治疗组APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠的脑葡萄糖代谢情况。方法随机挑选6月龄正常对照组C57BL/6J小鼠3只,模型组和姜黄素治疗组APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠各3只,通过2%异氟烷吸入麻醉后,从尾静脉弹丸式注射放射性示踪剂18F-FDG每例约14.8～16.5 MBq,摄取45 min后进行10 min microPET图像采集。计算并比较各组小鼠每克脑组织(除小脑)18F-FDG的摄取率。结果姜黄素治疗组小鼠每克脑组织18F-FDG的摄取率高于正常对照组和模型组。结论姜黄素能明显提高APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠脑18 F-FDG的摄取及每克脑组织的摄取率,并可能通过影响脑葡萄糖代谢而发挥神经保护作用。     

Early memory deficits precede plaque deposition in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice: involvement of oxidative stress and cholinergic dysfunction

A large body of evidence has shown that cognitive deficits occur early, before amyloid plaque deposition, suggesting that soluble amyloid-β protein (Aβ) contributes to the development of early cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer disease (AD). However, the underlying mechanism(s) through which soluble Aβ exerts its neurotoxicity responsible for cognitive dysfunction in the early stage of AD remains unclear so far. In this study, we used preplaque APPswe/PS1dE9 mice ages 2.5 and 3.5 months to examine alterations in cognitive function, oxidative stress, and cholinergic function. We found that only soluble Aβ, not insoluble Aβ, was detected in these preplaque APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. APPswe/PS1dE9 mice 2.5 months of age did not show any significant changes in the measures of cognitive function, oxidative stress, and cholinergic function, whereas 3.5-month-old APPswe/PS1dE9 mice exhibited spatial memory impairment in the Morris water maze, accompanied by significantly decreased acetylcholine (ACh), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px) as well as increased malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyls. In 3.5-month-old preplaque APPswe/PS1dE9 mice, correlational analyses revealed that the performance of impaired spatial memory was inversely correlated with soluble Aβ, MDA, and protein carbonyls, as well as being positively correlated with ACh, ChAT, SOD, and GSH-px; soluble Aβ level was inversely correlated with ACh, ChAT, SOD, and GSH-px, as well as being positively correlated with MDA and protein carbonyls; ACh level showed a significant positive correlation with ChAT, SOD, and GSH-px, as well as a significant inverse correlation with MDA and protein carbonyls. Collectively, this study provides direct evidence that increased oxidative damage and cholinergic dysfunction may be early pathological responses to soluble Aβ and involved in early memory deficits in the preplaque stage of AD. These findings suggest that early antioxidant therapy and improving cholinergic function may be a promising strategy to prevent or delay the onset and progression of AD.     

Long-term treadmill exercise improves spatial memory of male APPswe/PS1dE9 mice by regulation of BDNF expression and microglia activation

Increasing evidence suggests that physical activity could delay or attenuate the symptoms of Alzheimer''s disease (AD). But the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. To investigate the effect of long-term treadmill exercise on the spatial memory of AD mice and the possible role of β-amyloid, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and microglia in the effect, male APPswe/PS1dE9 AD mice aged 4 months were subjected to treadmill exercise for 5 months with 6 sessions per week and gradually increased load. A Morris water maze was used to evaluate the spatial memory. Expression levels of β-amyloid, BDNF and Iba-1 (a microglia marker) in brain tissue were detected by immunohistochemistry. Sedentary AD mice and wildtype C57BL/6J mice served as controls. The results showed that 5-month treadmill exercise significantly decreased the escape latencies (P < 0.01 on the 4th day) and improved the spatial memory of the AD mice in the water maze test. Meanwhile, treadmill exercise significantly increased the number of BDNF-positive cells and decreased the ratios of activated microglia in both the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. However, treadmill exercise did not significantly alleviate the accumulation of β-amyloid in either the cerebral cortex or the hippocampus of the AD mice (P > 0.05). The study suggested that long-term treadmill exercise could improve the spatial memory of the male APPswe/PS1dE9 AD mice. The increase in BDNF-positive cells and decrease in activated microglia might underpin the beneficial effect.     

Curcumin improves memory deficits by inhibiting HMGB1-RAGE/TLR4-NF-κB signalling pathway in APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice hippocampus

Amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brain has been implicated in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and neuroinflammation generates AD progression. Therapeutic effects of anti-inflammatory approaches in AD are still under investigation. Curcumin, a potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, has demonstrated therapeutic potential in AD models. However, curcumin's anti-inflammatory molecular mechanisms and its associated cognitive impairment mechanisms in AD remain unclear. The high-mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1) participates in the regulation of neuroinflammation. Herein, we attempted to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of chronic oral administration of curcumin and HMGB1 expression in APP/PS1 transgenic mice AD model. We found that transgenic mice treated with a curcumin diet had shorter escape latencies and showed a significant increase in percent alternation, when compared with transgenic mice, in the Morris water maze and Y-maze tests. Additionally, curcumin treatment could effectively decrease HMGB1 protein expression, advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor (RAGE), Toll-like receptors-4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in transgenic mice hippocampus. However, amyloid plaques detected with thioflavin-S staining in transgenic mice hippocampus were not affected by curcumin treatment. In contrast, curcumin significantly decreased GFAP-positive cells, as assessed by immunofluorescence staining. Taken together, these data indicate that oral administration of curcumin may be a promising agent to attenuate memory deterioration in AD mice, probably inhibiting the HMGB1-RAGE/TLR4-NF-κB inflammatory signalling pathway.     

Cognitive and non-cognitive behaviors in an APPswe/PS1 bigenic model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuropsychiatric signs are critical in primary caregiving of Alzheimer patients and yet have been relatively ignored in murine models. In the present study, APPswe/PS1 bigenic mice had higher levels of irritability than non-transgenic controls as measured in the touch escape test. Moreover, APPswe/PS1 mice showed poorer nest building than controls and a higher duration of immobility in the forced swimming assay. These results are concordant with the hypothesis of increased apathy and depression-like behavior in an Alzheimer's disease model. In addition, APPswe/PS1 bigenic mice were deficient in retention of passive avoidance learning and left–right discrimination learning, concordant with previous findings in other Alzheimer-like models.     

Special lipid-based diets alleviate cognitive deficits in the APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease independent of brain amyloid deposition

Dietary fish oil, providing n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), associates with reduced dementia risk in epidemiological studies and reduced amyloid accumulation in Alzheimer mouse models. We now studied whether additional nutrients can improve the efficacy of fish oil in alleviating cognitive deficits and amyloid pathology in APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic and wild-type mice. We compared four isocaloric (5% fat) diets. The fish oil diet differed from the control diet only by substituted fish oil. Besides fish oil, the plant sterol diet was supplemented with phytosterols, while the Fortasyn diet contained as supplements precursors and cofactors for membrane synthesis, viz. uridine-monophosphate; DHA and EPA; choline; folate; vitamins B6, B12, C and E; phospholipids and selenium. Mice began the special diets at 5 months and were sacrificed at 14 months after behavioral testing. Transgenic mice, fed with control chow, showed poor spatial learning, hyperactivity in exploring a novel cage and reduced preference to explore novel odors. All fish-oil-containing diets increased exploration of a novel odor over a familiar one. Only the Fortasyn diet alleviated the spatial learning deficit. None of the diets influenced hyperactivity in a new environment. Fish-oil-containing diets strongly inhibited β- and γ-secretase activity, and the plant sterol diet additionally reduced amyloid-β 1–42 levels. These data indicate that beneficial effects of fish oil on cognition in Alzheimer model mice can be enhanced by adding other specific nutrients, but this effect is not necessarily mediated via reduction of amyloid accumulation.     

Behavioural Phenotyping of APPswe/PS1δE9 Mice: Age-Rrelated Changes and Effect of Long-Term Paroxetine Treatment

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a devastating illness characterized by a progressive loss of cognitive, social, and emotional functions, including memory impairments and more global cognitive deficits. Clinical-epidemiological evidence suggests that neuropsychiatric symptoms precede the onset of cognitive symptoms both in humans with early and late onset AD. The behavioural profile promoted by the AD pathology is believed to associate with degeneration of the serotonergic system. Using the APP_swe/PS1_δE9 model of AD-like pathology starting with 9 months old mice, we characterised long term non-cognitive behavioural changes measured at 9, 12, 15, and 18 months of age and applied principal component analysis on data obtained from open field, elevated plus maze, and social interaction tests. Long-term treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) paroxetine was applied to assess the role of 5-HT on the behavioural profile; duration of treatment was 9 months, initiated when mice were 9 months of age. Treatment with paroxetine delays the decline in locomotion, in exploration and risk assessment behaviour, found in the APP/PS1 mice. APP/PS1 mice also exhibit low social activity and less aggressiveness, both of which are not affected by treatment with paroxetine. The APP/PS1 behavioural phenotype, demonstrated in this study, only begins to manifest itself from 12 months of age. Our results indicate that treatment with SSRI might ameliorate some of the behavioural deficits found in aged APP/PS1 mice.     

Impairments of long‐term depression induction and motor coordination precede Aβ accumulation in the cerebellum of APPswe/PS1dE9 double transgenic mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that represents the most common type of dementia among elderly people. Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides in extracellular Aβ plaques, produced from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) via sequential processing by β‐ and γ‐secretases, impair hippocampal synaptic plasticity, and cause cognitive dysfunction in AD patients. Here, we report that Aβ peptides also impair another form of synaptic plasticity; cerebellar long‐term depression (LTD). In the cerebellum of commonly used AD mouse model, APPswe/PS1dE9 mice, Aβ plaques were detected from 8 months and profound accumulation of Aβ plaques was observed at 18 months of age. Biochemical analysis revealed relatively high levels of APP protein and Aβ in the cerebellum of APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. At pre‐Aβ accumulation stage, LTD induction, and motor coordination are disturbed. These results indicate that soluble Aβ oligomers disturb LTD induction and cerebellar function in AD mouse model.

     

Circadian system functionality, hippocampal oxidative stress, and spatial memory in the APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic model of Alzheimer disease: effects of melatonin or ramelteon

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that primarily causes β-amyloid accumulation in the brain, resulting in cognitive and behavioral deficits. AD patients, however, also suffer from severe circadian rhythm disruptions, and the underlying causes are still not fully known. Patients with AD show reduced systemic melatonin levels. This may contribute to their symptoms, since melatonin is an effective chronobiotic and antioxidant with neuroprotective properties. Here, the authors critically assessed the effects of long-term melatonin treatment on circadian system function, hippocampal oxidative stress, and spatial memory performance in the APPswe/PS1 double transgenic (Tg) mouse model of AD. To test if melatonin MT1/MT2 receptor activation, alone, was involved, the authors chronically treated some mice with the selective MT1/MT2 receptor agonist ramelteon. The results indicate that many of the circadian and behavioral parameters measured, including oxidative stress markers, were not significantly affected in these AD mice. During the day, though, Tg controls (Tg-CON) showed significantly higher mean activity and body temperature (BT) than wild-type (WT) mice. Overall, BT rhythm amplitude was significantly lower in Tg than in WT mice. Although melatonin treatment had no effect, ramelteon significantly reduced the amplitude of the BT rhythm in Tg mice. Towards the end of the experiment, Tg mice treated with ramelteon (Tg-RAM) showed significantly higher circadian rhythm fragmentation than Tg-CON and reduced circadian BT rhythm strength. The free-running period (τ) for the BT and locomotor activity (LA) rhythms of Tg-CON was <24 h. Whereas melatonin maintained τ at 24 h for BT and LA in both genotypes, ramelteon treatment had no effect. In the behavioral tests, the number of approaches and time spent exploring novel objects were significantly higher in Tg-CON than WT controls. Brain tissue analysis revealed significant reduction in hippocampal protein oxidation in Tg-MEL and Tg-RAM compared with Tg-CON animals. These results suggest that not all aspects of the circadian system are affected in the APPswe/PS1 mice. Therefore, care should be taken when extending the results obtained in Tg mice to develop new therapies in humans. This study also revealed the complexity in the therapeutic actions of melatonin and ramelteon in this mouse model of AD.     

Circadian System Functionality,Hippocampal Oxidative Stress,and Spatial Memory in the APPswe/PS1dE9 Transgenic Model of Alzheimer Disease: Effects of Melatonin or Ramelteon

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that primarily causes β-amyloid accumulation in the brain, resulting in cognitive and behavioral deficits. AD patients, however, also suffer from severe circadian rhythm disruptions, and the underlying causes are still not fully known. Patients with AD show reduced systemic melatonin levels. This may contribute to their symptoms, since melatonin is an effective chronobiotic and antioxidant with neuroprotective properties. Here, the authors critically assessed the effects of long-term melatonin treatment on circadian system function, hippocampal oxidative stress, and spatial memory performance in the APPswe/PS1 double transgenic (Tg) mouse model of AD. To test if melatonin MT1/MT2 receptor activation, alone, was involved, the authors chronically treated some mice with the selective MT1/MT2 receptor agonist ramelteon. The results indicate that many of the circadian and behavioral parameters measured, including oxidative stress markers, were not significantly affected in these AD mice. During the day, though, Tg controls (Tg-CON) showed significantly higher mean activity and body temperature (BT) than wild-type (WT) mice. Overall, BT rhythm amplitude was significantly lower in Tg than in WT mice. Although melatonin treatment had no effect, ramelteon significantly reduced the amplitude of the BT rhythm in Tg mice. Towards the end of the experiment, Tg mice treated with ramelteon (Tg-RAM) showed significantly higher circadian rhythm fragmentation than Tg-CON and reduced circadian BT rhythm strength. The free-running period (τ) for the BT and locomotor activity (LA) rhythms of Tg-CON was <24?h. Whereas melatonin maintained τ at 24?h for BT and LA in both genotypes, ramelteon treatment had no effect. In the behavioral tests, the number of approaches and time spent exploring novel objects were significantly higher in Tg-CON than WT controls. Brain tissue analysis revealed significant reduction in hippocampal protein oxidation in Tg-MEL and Tg-RAM compared with Tg-CON animals. These results suggest that not all aspects of the circadian system are affected in the APPswe/PS1 mice. Therefore, care should be taken when extending the results obtained in Tg mice to develop new therapies in humans. This study also revealed the complexity in the therapeutic actions of melatonin and ramelteon in this mouse model of AD. (Author correspondence: jamadrid@um.es)     

Electroacupuncture Attenuates Reference Memory Impairment Associated with Astrocytic NDRG2 Suppression in APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice

Electroacupuncture (EA) has demonstrated therapeutic potential for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A previous study reported that N-myc downstream-regulated gene 2 (NDRG2) was upregulated in the brain of patients with AD. In the present study, we investigated the effects of repeated EA administration on reference memory impairment and the role of NDRG2 in an amyloid precursor protein (APP)/presenilin-1 (PS1) double transgenic mouse model. Age-matched wild-type and transgenic mice were treated with EA (once per day for 30 min) for 4 weeks (four courses of 5 days EA administration and 2 days rest) beginning at 10 months of age. At seven and ten postnatal months of age and following a 4-week EA treatment regime, mice received training in the Morris water maze (MWM) and a probe test. Brain tissue was analyzed via Western blot and double-label immunofluorescence. Beginning at 7 months of age, APP/PS1 mice began to exhibit deficits in reference memory in the MWM test, an impairment associated with upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and NDRG2. Four weeks of EA administration significantly ameliorated cognitive impairments and suppressed GFAP and NDRG2 upregulation. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that EA administration can alleviate reference memory deficits and suppress NDRG2 upregulation in an AD transgenic mouse model. This study provides supportive evidence for EA as an effective therapeutic intervention for AD, as well as NDRG2 as a novel target for AD treatment.     

Multi-target, Neuroprotective and Neurorestorative M30 Improves Cognitive Impairment and Reduces Alzheimer's-Like Neuropathology and Age-Related Alterations in Mice

Based on a multimodal drug design strategy for age-related neurodegenerative diseases, we have synthesized a multifunctional nontoxic, brain-permeable iron-chelating compound, M30, possessing the neuroprotective N-propargyl moiety of the anti-Parkinsonian drug, monoamine oxidase-B inhibitor, rasagiline and the antioxidant-iron chelator moiety of the 8-hydroxyquinoline derivative of the iron chelator, VK28. In the present short overview, we describe the neuroprotective and the neurorestorative activity of M30, acting against multiple brain targets, including regulation on amyloid β, neurogenesis, and activation of hypoxia inducible factor signaling pathways. The diverse pharmacological properties and several pathological targets of M30 make this drug potential valuable for therapeutic strategy of Alzheimer's-like neuropathology and aging.