Isolation and Identification of Tyrosine Kinase from the Cytosol of Bovine Retinal Rod Outer Segments

It was shown that the cytosol fraction of bovine retinal rod outer segments contains three forms of tyrosine kinase. One of them was purified 171-fold to attain a specific activity of 1.6 nmol/min per mg protein. The isolated protein had a molecular weight of about 54,000 in SDS electrophoresis. It was shown that this protein is a tyrosine-specific protein kinase, capable of autophosphorylation at the tyrosine residues and restoration of kinase activity upon denaturation–renaturation.     

Strong Association of Unesterified [3H]Docosahexaenoic Acid and [3H-Docosahexaenoyl]Phosphatidate to Rhodopsin During In Vivo Labeling of Frog Retinal Rod Outer Segments

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), the most prevalent fatty acid in phospholipids of rod outer segments (ROS), is essential for visual transduction and daily renewal of ROS membranes. We investigated the association of [³H]DHA-lipids to rhodopsin in ROS from frogs (Rana pipiens) after in vitro (4 hrs) and in vivo (1 day and 32 days) labeling. Lipids from lyophilized ROS were sequentially extracted with hexane (neutral lipids), chloroform:methanol (phospholipids) and acidified chloroform:methanol (acidic phospholipids). After in vitro labeling, free [³H]DHA was easily extracted with hexane (66% of total ROS free DHA), implying a weak association with proteins (rhodopsin). In contrast, after in vivo labeling free [³H]DHA was mainly recovered in the acidic solvent extract (89–99%). Of all phospholipids, [³H-DHA]phosphatidic acid (PA) displayed the highest binding to rhodopsin after both in vitro (43% in acidic extract) and in vivo (>70%) labeling suggesting a possible modulatory role of free DHA and DHA-PA in visual transduction.     

酪氨酸蛋白激酶和蛋白激酶C对N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶V的双重调控

在人肝癌细胞７７２１中研究了酪氨酸蛋白激酶（ＴＰＫ）和蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）的激活剂［分别为表皮生长因子（ＥＧＦ）和佛波酯（ＰＭＡ）］和各种蛋白激酶抑制剂对Ｎ－乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶Ｖ（ＧｎＴ－Ｖ）活力的影响,以探讨ＴＰＫ和ＰＫＣ对ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的调节。结果发现,ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ处理细胞４８ｈ后,ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的活力明显增高;蛋白激酶的非特异性抑制剂槲皮素和染料木黄酮（ｇｅｎｉｓｔｅｉｎ）在抑制ＴＰＫ和ＰＫＣ的同时,抑制ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的基础活力,并完全阻断ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ对ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的增高作用;ＴＰＫ的特异性抑制剂Ｔｙｒｐｈｏｓｔｉｎ－２５和ＰＫＣ的特异性抑制剂Ｄ－鞘氨醇分别应用时,各自只能部分地取消ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ对ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的诱导。但当Ｔｙｒｐｈｏｓｔｉｎ－２５和Ｄ－鞘氨醇同时加入培养基中则可完全阻断ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ对ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的诱导激活。蛋白质合成抑制剂环己亚胺和蛋白激酶抑制剂作用相仿,不但可抑制ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的基础活力,也可完全消除ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ对ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的激活。以上结果提示ＥＧＦ或ＰＭＡ通过蛋白激酶调节ＧｎＴ－Ｖ的酶蛋白合成,并且ＧｎＴ－Ｖ受到膜性ＴＰＫ和ＰＫＣ的双重调节,其中ｍ－ＴＰＫ较ｍ－ＰＫＣ更为重要。     

Identification and Immunolocalization of Phospholipase C in Bovine Rod Outer Segments

Bovine rod outer segments (ROS) contain a phospholipase C (PLC) that hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Approximately 60-70% of PLC activity is recovered in soluble extracts of ROS. Moreover, the specific activity of this soluble PLC is approximately 10-fold higher than that of resealed ROS enzyme activity. Peptide-specific antiserum (Ab 1109) directed against a highly conserved sequence of the Y-region found in several PLC isozymes was used to detect any PLC belonging to this family. This antibody specifically recognized a protein of apparent molecular mass of approximately 140 kDa present in immunoblots of soluble extracts of both ROS and whole retina. The elution profile of this 140-kDa antigen from a Sephadex G-150 column coincided with the peak of PLC activity, suggesting PLC activity is associated with the 140-kDa protein. Immunocytochemical studies of bovine retina using Ab 1109 showed pronounced immunoreactive labeling in the photoreceptor layer. In resealed ROS and washed ROS membranes, Ab 1109 recognized an additional protein of apparent molecular mass of 70 kDa not usually detectable in soluble extracts of ROS, suggesting the presence of at least two isozymes of PLC in ROS.     

Characterization and Localization of Adenosine A2 Receptors in Bovine Rod Outer Segments

Abstract: Previous work from this laboratory has shown that retinal adenosine A₂ binding sites are localized over outer and inner segments of photoreceptors in rabbit and mouse retinal sections. In the present study, adenosine receptor binding has been characterized and localized in membranes from bovine rod outer segments (ROS). Saturation studies with varying concentrations (10–150 nM) of 5′-(N-[2,8-³H]ethylcarboxamido)adenosine ([³H]NECA) and 100 μg of ROS membrane protein show a single site with a K_D of 103 nM and a B_max of 1.3 pM/mg of protein. Cold Scatchards, which used nonradiolabeled NECA (concentrations ranging from 10 nM to 250 nM) in competition with a fixed amount of [³H]NECA (30 nM), demonstrated the presence of a low-affinity site (K_D, 50 μM) in addition to the high-affinity site. To confirm the presence of A_2abinding sites, saturation analyses with 2-p-(2-[³H]-carboxyethyl)phenylamino-5′-N-ethylcarboxamido adenosine (0–80 nM) also revealed a single population of high-affinity A_2a receptors (K_D, 9.4 nM). The binding sites labeled by [³H]NECA appear to be A₂ receptor sites because binding was displaced by increasing concentrations of 5′-(N-methylcarboxamido)adenosine and 2-chloroadenosine. ROS were fractionated into plasma and disk membranes for localization studies. Receptor binding assays, used to determine specific binding, showed that the greatest concentration of A₂ receptors was on the plasma membranes. Therefore, adenosine A₂ receptors are in a position to respond to changes in the concentration of extracellular adenosine, which may exhibit a circadian rhythm.     

Phospholipase Cγ1 in Bovine Rod Outer Segments: Immunolocalization and Light-Dependent Binding to Membranes

Abstract: We have investigated the isozymes of a phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) in bovine retina using several monoclonal antisera to PLCβ₁, γ₁, and δ₁. Immunoblot analysis showed that all three isozymes were present in the retina. Immunocytochemical localization in frozen bovine retina sections showed that PLCγ₁ was present in the photoreceptor cell layer, outer plexiform cell layer, inner plexiform cell layer, and ganglion cell layer. Immunoreaction within the photoreceptor cell layer was dependent on dark/light adaptation state of retinas. Immunoblot analysis of rod outer segments (ROS) with monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies to PLCγ₁ showed the presence of an immunoreactive band of 140 kDa. ROS prepared from retinas light-adapted in vitro had more PLCγ₁ on immunoblots than ROS from dark-adapted retinas. PLC enzyme activity in ROS from light-adapted retinas was 69 and 46% higher than ROS from dark-adapted retinas, when assayed in the presence and absence of ATP, respectively. This increase in enzyme activity was observed at [Ca²⁺]_free between 0.32 and 100 µ M . These results demonstrate the presence of PLCγ₁ in bovine ROS and show that ROS prepared from light-adapted retinas are enriched in this isozyme, suggesting that light may promote the binding of this isozyme to bleached ROS membranes.     

Noncatalytic Inhibition of Cyclic Nucleotide–gated Channels by Tyrosine Kinase Induced by Genistein

Rod photoreceptor cyclic nucleotide–gated (CNG) channels are modulated by tyrosine phosphorylation. Rod CNG channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes are associated with constitutively active protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) and protein tyrosine phosphatases that decrease and increase, respectively, the apparent affinity of the channels for cGMP. Here, we examine the effects of genistein, a competitive inhibitor of the ATP binding site, on PTKs. Like other PTK inhibitors (lavendustin A and erbstatin), cytoplasmic application of genistein prevents changes in the cGMP sensitivity that are attributable to tyrosine phosphorylation of the CNG channels. However, unlike these other inhibitors, genistein also slows the activation kinetics and reduces the maximal current through CNG channels at saturating cGMP. These effects occur in the absence of ATP, indicating that they do not involve inhibition of a phosphorylation event, but rather involve an allosteric effect of genistein on CNG channel gating. This could result from direct binding of genistein to the channel; however, the time course of inhibition is surprisingly slow (>30 s), raising the possibility that genistein exerts its effects indirectly. In support of this hypothesis, we find that ligands that selectively bind to PTKs without directly binding to the CNG channel can nonetheless decrease the effect of genistein. Thus, ATP and a nonhydrolyzable ATP derivative competitively inhibit the effect of genistein on the channel. Moreover, erbstatin, an inhibitor of PTKs, can noncompetitively inhibit the effect of genistein. Taken together, these results suggest that in addition to inhibiting tyrosine phosphorylation of the rod CNG channel catalyzed by PTKs, genistein triggers a noncatalytic interaction between the PTK and the channel that allosterically inhibits gating.     

Ultimate Fate of Rod Outer Segments in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium

To investigate the degradation pathway of rod outer segments (ROS) in vivo, we injected gold-labeled ROS into the subretinal space of rabbits using a pars plana approach. Histology and electron microscopy performed on the specimens 72 hr after ROS injection revealed that the retina over the injection site was reattached, the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells were intact, and gold granules were localized inside melanin granules and melanosomes. These results indicate that, in RPE, in vivo degradation of ROS is associated with melanosomes.     

蛋白酪氨酸激酶抑制剂Genistein抑制肺癌细胞A549体外侵袭作用的研究

观察蛋白酪氨酸激酶抑制剂Genistein对人肺腺癌细胞株A549细胞侵袭能力的影响,探讨Genistein抑制肺癌细胞侵袭的可能机制。以不同浓度Genistein（20μmol/L和40μmol/L）作用于A549细胞3 d后,分别用基质胶侵袭模型、黏附基质分析、Transwell小室趋化运动模型、细胞骨架蛋白染色及RT-PCR法来研究药物处理后细胞侵袭、黏附、运动、聚合型骨架蛋白（F-actin）以及基质金属蛋白酶基因表达的改变。经Genistein处理后,A549细胞的F-actin聚合减少,侵袭能力明显下降,趋化运动能力降低,基质金属蛋白酶抑制剂（TIMP-1）基因相对表达量增加,但黏附率没有降低。Genistein可降低肺癌细胞的迁移、侵袭能力。F-actin聚合减少,TIMP-1的相对表达量增加,可能是Genistein抑制肺癌细胞侵袭的机制之一。     

Involvement of Lysophosphatidic Acid,Sphingosine 1-Phosphate and Ceramide 1-Phosphate in the Metabolization of Phosphatidic Acid by Lipid Phosphate Phosphatases in Bovine Rod Outer Segments

The aim of the present research was to evaluate the generation of [2-3H]diacylglycerol ([2-3H]DAG) from [2-3H]-Phosphatidic acid ([2-3H]PA) by lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs) at different concentrations of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), and ceramide 1-phosphate (C1P) in purified ROS obtained from dark-adapted retinas (DROS) or light-adapted retinas (BLROS) as well as in ROS membrane preparations depleted of soluble and peripheral proteins. Western blot analysis revealed the presence of LPP3 exclusively in all membrane preparations. Immunoblots of entire ROS and depleted ROS did not show dark-light differences in LPP3 levels. LPPs activities were diminished by 53% in BLROS with respect to DROS. The major competitive effect on PA hydrolysis was exerted by LPA and S1P in DROS and by C1P in BLROS. LPPs activities in depleted ROS were similar to the activity observed in entire DROS and BLROS, respectively. LPA, S1P and C1P competed at different extent in depleted DROS and BLROS. Sphingosine and ceramide inhibited LPPs activities in entire and depleted DROS. Ceramide also inhibited LPPs activities in entire and in depleted BLROS. Our findings are indicative of a different degree of competition between PA and LPA, S1P and C1P by LPPs depending on the illumination state of the retina.     

The Lck Tyrosine Kinase Is Expressed in Brain Neurons

Abstract: The lck gene product, p56^lck, is a member of the src-related family of protein tyrosine kinases. It is known as lymphocyte specific and involved in thymocyte development and in the immune response mediated by the T cell receptor. We report that the lck gene is also expressed in adult mouse CNS and that brain p56^lck is similar to the thymus protein. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry show that the lck gene is expressed in neurons throughout the brain in distinct regions, including hippocampus and cerebellum. In primary cultures from fetal mouse brain, neuronal cells are immunoreactive to Lck antiserum. This suggests that the lck gene product might be involved in a new signal transduction pathway in mouse brain.     

Conservation of Docosahexaenoic Acid in Rod Outer Segments of Rat Retina During n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acid Deficiency

We investigated the mechanism by which rat retina conserves docosahexaenoic acid during essential fatty acid deficiency. Weanling female albino rats were fed diets containing either 10% by weight hydrogenated coconut oil, safflower oil, or linseed oil for 15 weeks. Plasma and rod outer segment (ROS) membranes were prepared for fatty acid and phospholipid molecular species analysis. In addition, retinas were removed for morphometric analysis. We found the following: (1) Plasma phospholipids and cholesterol esters from coconut oil, safflower oil, and linseed oil diet groups were enriched in 20:3(n-9), 20:4(n-6), and 20:5(n-3), respectively. The levels of these 20-carbon fatty acids in the ROS, however, were only slightly affected by diet. (2) The fatty acids and molecular species of ROS phospholipids from the safflower oil and coconut oil groups showed a selective replacement of 22:6(n-3) with 22:5(n-6), as evidenced by a reduction of the 22:6(n-3)-22:6(n-3) molecular species and an increase in the 22:5(n-6)-22:6(n-3) species. (3) The renewal rate of ROS integral proteins, determined by autoradiography, was 10% per day for each diet group. (4) Morphometric analysis of retinas showed no differences in the outer nuclear layer area or in ROS length between the three groups. We conclude that the conservation of 22:6(n-3) in ROS is not accomplished through reductions in the rate of membrane turnover, the total amount of ROS membranes, or in the number of rod cells. The retina may conserve 22:6(n-3) through recycling within the retina or between the retina and the pigment epithelium, or through the selective uptake of 22-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids from the circulation.     

Characterization of Protein Kinase C in Photoreceptor Outer Segments

Abstract: Protein kinase C (PKC) has been implicated in regulating several proteins involved in phototransduction. This contribution characterizes the biochemical and immunological properties of PKC isozyme(s) in the photoreceptor outer segment. Activity measurements revealed that at least 85% of the PKC in this specialized compartment belongs to the subfamily of Ca²⁺-regulated (conventional) PKCs. Of the known Ca²⁺-dependent PKCs, only PKCα was immunodetected by western blot analysis of rod outer segment proteins. However, the ratio of immunoreactivity to enzyme activity for rod outer segment PKC was no more than 40% of that for brain PKC, using antibodies against conventional PKCs. Therefore, at least half the Ca²⁺/lipid-stimulated activity in rod outer segment preparations cannot be accounted for by the known isozymes, suggesting the presence of a previously uncharacterized isozyme. Despite extensive tests using a variety of antibodies against different domains of PKCα, PKCα could not be detected in rod outer segments by immunofluorescence of retinal sections. In summary, our data reveal that most of the PKC in photoreceptor outer segments is of the conventional type and that most, if not all, of this conventional PKC activity comes from a novel isozyme(s).     

Effect of Modulators of Protein Kinase C Activity on Ca2+ Transport in Retinal Rod Microsomes

The effect of modulators of protein kinase C (PKC) activity on Ca²⁺ translocation in retinal rod microsomes was studied. It is shown that PKC activators (phorbol 12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) and diacylglycerol (DAG)) and inhibitors (chelerythrine chloride, polymyxin B, and phloretin) stimulate and inhibit ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ uptake in retinal rod microsomes, respectively. This effect is apparently due to an influence of PKC on Ca-ATPase contained in these vesicular structures. It was found that PKC inhibitors (chelerythrine chloride, polymyxin B, and phloretin) and activators (PMA and DAG) potentiate Ca²⁺ release from Ca²⁺ -loaded retinal rod microsomes. Specific and nonspecific mechanisms of Ca-release stimulation by the modulators of PKC activity are discussed.     

The Tyrosine Kinase c-Abl Promotes Homeodomain-interacting Protein Kinase 2 (HIPK2) Accumulation and Activation in Response to DNA Damage

The non-receptor tyrosine kinase c-Abl is activated in response to DNA damage and induces p73-dependent apoptosis. Here, we investigated c-Abl regulation of the homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 2 (HIPK2), an important regulator of p53-dependent apoptosis. c-Abl phosphorylated HIPK2 at several sites, and phosphorylation by c-Abl protected HIPK2 from degradation mediated by the ubiquitin E3 ligase Siah-1. c-Abl and HIPK2 synergized in activating p53 on apoptotic promoters in a reporter assay, and c-Abl was required for endogenous HIPK2 accumulation and phosphorylation of p53 at Ser⁴⁶ in response to DNA damage by γ- and UV radiation. Accumulation of HIPK2 in nuclear speckles and association with promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) in response to DNA damage were also dependent on c-Abl activity. At high cell density, the Hippo pathway inhibits DNA damage-induced c-Abl activation. Under this condition, DNA damage-induced HIPK2 accumulation, phosphorylation of p53 at Ser⁴⁶, and apoptosis were attenuated. These data demonstrate a new mechanism for the induction of DNA damage-induced apoptosis by c-Abl and illustrate network interactions between serine/threonine and tyrosine kinases that dictate cell fate.     

PTP及其在植物MAPK途径中的作用

蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶（protein tyrosine phosphatases,PTPs）是一个结构多样的磷酸酶家族,含有高度保守的催化结构域。在植物体内,PTP主要的靶蛋白是促细胞分裂剂激活性蛋白激酶（mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK）。MAPK级联途径参与有机体的发育、细胞增殖、激素调节以及逆境胁迫的信号转导,PTP在MAPK级联途径中主要起负调控作用。本文就PTP的结构和功能、MAPK在植物中的作用及PTP在MAPK级联途径中的功能进行综述,并着重介绍PTP在拟南芥中的研究进展。     

转化淋巴细胞胰岛素受体酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性及细胞内源性底物的研究

本文对增殖期的淋巴细胞胰岛素依赖性酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性及内源性废物进行了分析研究。在纯化的健康人淋巴细胞中加入适量的植物血凝素(PHA),经过72h培养即成为转化淋巴细胞(增殖期淋巴细胞)。应用~(32)P参入实验,证实转化淋巴细胞胰岛素受体具有胰岛素依赖性的酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性,与未转化的对照组相比其活性增加约9倍。Scatchard分析表明转化后淋巴细胞膜表面胰岛素受体数增加3.5倍。应用抗酪氨酸磷酸酯抗体,对胰岛素作用前后的转化与未转化淋巴细胞内,酪氨酸残基磷酸化的蛋白进行了鉴定,结果表明:除了95kD受体β亚基自身磷酸化外,45kD蛋白质也明显磷酸化,我们命名它为PP45。我们认为PP45可能是淋巴细胞中胰岛素受体酪氨酸蛋白激酶的主要内源性废物,它的磷酸化是胰岛素信息传递过程级联反应的初始步骤。     

血管内皮生长因子受体1酪氨酸激酶的克隆、表达和功能

血管内皮生长因子受体 1(Flt 1)在血管生成过程中起着重要的作用。Flt 1胞内域的酪氨酸激酶直接参与了VEGF与Flt 1结合后的胞内信号转导途径。在原核系统中表达得到具有酶活性的Flt 1酪氨酸激酶融合蛋白 ,并进行了初步的性质研究。利用逆转录PCR技术从人肝癌组织总RNA中得到Flt 1酪氨酸激酶区的cDNA ,将其克隆到表达载体质粒 pGEX KG中 ,并在大肠杆菌BL2 1(DE3) pLysS中表达、纯化 ,得到可溶的Flt 1酪氨酸激酶融合蛋白 (GST F)。虽然GST F不包含目前已知的磷酸化位点 ,但研究表明GST F能够进行自磷酸化反应 ,并且其活性需要镁离子或锰离子的参与。同时发现GST F能够磷酸化合成底物 polyE4Y ,而不能作用于MBP和Src相关肽。底物磷酸化时最适的镁离子和锰离子浓度分别为 15mmol/L和 0 .5mmol/L。GST F为寻找抗肿瘤药物提供了一个有效工具     

Large-Scale Purification of Porcine or Bovine Photoreceptor Outer Segments for Phagocytosis Assays on Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

Analysis of one of the vital functions of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, the phagocytosis of spent aged distal fragments of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) can be performed in vitro. Photoreceptor outer segments with stacks of membranous discs containing the phototransduction machinery are continuously renewed in the retina. Spent POS are eliminated daily by RPE cells. Rodent, porcine/bovine and human RPE cells recognize POS from various species in a similar manner. To facilitate performing large series of experiments with little variability, a large stock of POS can be isolated from porcine eyes and stored frozen in aliquots. This protocol takes advantage of the characteristic of photopigments that display an orange color when kept in the dark. Under dim red light, retinae are collected in a buffer from opened eyecups cut in halves. The retinal cell suspension is homogenized, filtered and loaded onto a continuous sucrose gradient. After centrifugation, POS are located in a discrete band in the upper part of the gradient that has a characteristic orange color. POS are then collected, spun, resuspended sequentially in wash buffers, counted and aliquoted. POS obtained this way can be used for phagocytosis assays and analysis of protein activation, localization or interaction at various times after POS challenge. Alternatively, POS can be labeled with fluorophores, e.g., FITC, before aliquoting for subsequent fluorescence quantification of POS binding or engulfment. Other possible applications include the use of modified POS or POS challenge combined with stress conditions to study the effect of oxidative stress or aging on RPE cells.     

小分子 Fms 样酪氨酸激酶 3 抑制剂的研究进展

Fms 样酪氨酸激酶 3（FLT3）是一种重要的Ⅲ型受体酪氨酸激酶,对造血细胞和淋巴细胞的增殖起关键作用,其突变以及过度表 达是造成多种恶性肿瘤的关键因素。通过外源性抑制剂阻断细胞增殖信号的传导来促使肿瘤细胞凋亡是当前治疗肿瘤的重要手段。FLT3 小 分子抑制剂作为一类重要的外源性受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂已应用于多种恶性肿瘤的治疗并引起广泛关注。综述近 5 年来 FLT3 小分子抑制剂 的研究进展。