A note on the effect of isolation during testing and length of previous confinement on locomotor behaviour during open-field test in dairy calves

This study investigated firstly if confined calves perform more locomotor behaviour when open-field tested in pairs than when tested individually, and secondly if length of confinement affects the build-up of motivation to perform locomotor behaviour. In the first experiment,14 calves were open-field tested on two successive days either individually or as a pair. Calves walked more and performed more locomotor play when tested in pairs, suggesting that it may be appropriate to avoid isolation when aiming to measure the effects of confinement on locomotor behaviour. In the second experiment, in each of three successive weeks, 24 calves had access to an exercise arena for 45 min daily on three successive days either: (i) the first 3 days, (ii) the third, fourth and fifth day, or (iii) the fourth, fifth and sixth day. On the seventh day the calves were released into the arena for 10 min (open-field test). All calves received all three treatments in a Latin square design. Calves performed more locomotor play, and they trotted more after 3 days without access to the arena than after 1 or 0 days, suggesting that in calves the motivation to perform locomotor play and trotting increases with length of confinement.     

Environmental and genetic background of tiptoe-initiating behaviour in the dwarfspider Erigone atra

Ballooning is a widespread behavioural trait in invertebrates, which enhances passive aerial dispersal. We investigated the influence of common lineage (family effect) and postnatal environmental conditions on latency to initiate preballooning tiptoe behaviour (ballooning latency) in the dwarfspider Erigone atra (Blackwall, 1841). The ballooning latency of individual spiders was tested in a specially designed test chamber. In a 3-week experiment, in which the spiders were fed only during the first day of each week, ballooning latency had low repeatability at weekly intervals. Ballooning latency declined with increasing food deprivation during the first week but not during the second and the third weeks. At intervals of less than 1 h, however, ballooning latency showed high repeatability. We also investigated whether maternal and postnatal environmental conditions (i.e. during juvenile development) influence phenotypic variation in ballooning latency. We reared offspring of several families under two feeding and two temperature conditions. Environmental conditions explained more variation in ballooning latency than family. Ballooning latency was lower in spiders reared at 20°C than in those reared at 15°C. In addition, spiderlings fed four prey per 3 days were faster ballooners than those fed only four prey per week. An interaction between factors was present, indicating the existence of different reaction norms between the two environmental conditions. The expression of ballooning latency behaviour thus strongly depends on current nutrition, feeding history and the feeding and temperature conditions during juvenile development. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.      

Reduction in cross-sucking in calves by the use of a modified automatic teat feeder

Cross-sucking may be a problem in group-housed calves fed by automatic teat feeders. In the present study, the behaviour of calves fed by a conventional feeder with an open feeding stall (n=15 calves) was compared with the behaviour of calves fed by a modified feeder, closing in the rear after the calf has entered (n=14 calves). It was found that the calves fed by the feeder with the closed stall stayed longer in the feeding stall following milk ingestion (P<0.001), showed longer bouts of non-nutritive sucking directed to the teat after milk ingestion (P<0.005) and performed less cross-sucking in the first 15min after milk ingestion (P<0.001) than calves fed by the feeder with the open stall. The design of the feeder had, however, no significant influence on the incidence of cross-sucking performed without close temporal association with milk ingestion. As the modification in the feeding stall reduces cross-sucking and is not costly, it should be feasible to introduce it in practice.     

The replacement of skim milk by dried microbial cells and whey in milk diets for calves

In two experiments, the performance and health of calves fed on diets containing dried microbial cells (DMC) was monitored. In the first experiment 32 seven-day-old British Friesian bull calves, reared on a conventional early weaning system to 8 weeks of age, were given milk replacers in which 5, 10 and 20% spray-dried DMC and whey replaced 14–55% of skim milk protein. All DMC diets contained 36 g/kg of non-nucleic acid nitrogen. In Experiment 2, 38 two-day-old Ayrshire bull calves were fed for 63 days solely on one of two milk diets containing 0 or 10% DMC at 5 levels of intake designed to produce body gains of 0–1 kg/day. While the inclusion of up to 10% DMC in both experiments had little effect on performance or health, 20% DMC was associated with severe diarrhoea, loss of appetite and growth retardation, and impaired clotting of the milk in vitro. In Experiment 2 the response, in gain, by calves given increasing intakes of milk dry matter was linear and was unaffected by the type of diet offered.It was concluded that when levels of DMC in excess of 10% inclusion are used in association with maize starch, deleterious effects on performance are likely.     

Quantitation of glucocorticoid receptors in bovine skeletal muscle: Topographical distribution, sex effect and breed comparisons

The concentration of the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor (GR) was determined in skeletal muscles of calves in order to study possible differences in individual muscles from different parts of the body as well as the influence of sex and breed. In male and female Simmental calves the topographical distribution of GR was similar: the lowest concentrations were seen in abdominal muscle, whereas in neck, shoulder and hindleg the GR concentrations were higher; this difference was more pronounced in male than in female calves. In general, female calves had about 2-fold higher GR concentrations than males. The cytosolic cortisol concentrations were differing neither between individual muscles nor between sexes. The cortisol secretion during a 24-h sampling period 1 week prior to slaughter showed no sex difference. GR concentrations in neck muscle of female calves of four different German cattle breeds (Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss, Simmental and German Gelbvieh) were rather similar; however, when Brown Swiss with the highest GR levels were compared to Holstein Friesian calves with the lowest concentrations, a significant difference was evident (P < 0.05).     

The behaviour of calves under four levels of lighting

The object of the present paper was to examine the influence of light intensity on the behaviour of calves. For this purpose, 20 calves of both sexes and of the breeds German Friesian, Simmental and their cross-breeds were kept in groups of 5 animals at 4 different levels of lighting: 2, 20, 100 or 130 lx. The behaviour of the animals was observed once a week by video. For each behaviour pattern and each light intensity, duration, frequency and daily rhythm were calculated. Furthermore, the behaviour sequences were examined.At 2 lx, the lowest level of lighting, the longest duration and most frequent phases of resting behaviour were noted. The daily rhythm of resting behaviour was more distinct in the better-lighted stable than in that with less lighting.Differences also occurred in feeding behaviour, which lasted longer at the higher light intensity.The influence of the light was clearest on social behaviour, and mainly on playing behaviour. The duration and frequency of play-fighting and solitary play-running increased with higher light intensity.Licking of objects was also significantly influenced by the level of lighting. It lasted longest at 130 lx and was shortest at 2 lx.Examination of the behaviour sequences showed that grooming and licking of objects were present in the majority of sequences. Apart from their functions, these activities are also of importance as displacement or redirected activities.The differences in the behaviour due to different lighting could be the result of worse visual ability at the lower light intensities.     

Effect of milk replacer and concentrate intake on growth rate,feeding behaviour and systemic metabolite concentrations of pre-weaned bull calves of two dairy breeds

Early-life nutrition affects calf development and thus subsequent performance. The aim of this study was to examine the effect plane of nutrition on growth, feeding behaviour and systemic metabolite concentrations of artificially reared dairy bull calves. Holstein-Friesian (F; n=42) and Jersey (J; n=25) bull calves with a mean±SD age (14±4.7 v. 27±7.2 days) and BW (47±5.5 v. 33±4.7 kg) were offered a high, medium or low plane of nutrition for 8 weeks using an electronic feeding system which recorded a range of feed-related events. Calves were weighed weekly and plasma samples were collected via jugular venipuncture on weeks 1, 4 and 7 relative to the start of the trial period. The calves offered a high plane of nutrition had the greatest growth rate. However, the increased consumption of milk replacer led to a reduction in feed efficiency. Holstein-Friesian calves offered a low plane of nutrition had the greatest number of daily unrewarded visits to the feeder (P<0.001). β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentrations were greater in F calves on a low plane of nutrition (P<0.001). Although there was no effect of plane of nutrition, BHB concentrations in F calves increased before weaning, concomitant with an increase in concentrate consumption. Urea concentrations were unaffected by plane of nutrition within either breed. Jersey calves on a low plane of nutrition tended to have lower triglycerides than those on a high plane (P=0.08), but greater than those on a medium plane (P=0.08). Holstein-Friesian calves offered a high plane of nutrition tended to have greater triglyceride concentrations than those on a medium plane (P=0.08). Triglycerides increased from the start to the end of the feeding period (P<0.05), across both breeds. A medium plane of nutrition resulted in a growth, feeding behaviour and metabolic response comparable with a high plane of nutrition in pre-weaned bull calves of both F and J breeds.     

The effect of irregular feeding times on the behaviour and growth of dairy calves

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of predictable vs. unpredictable management routines on the behaviour, production and health of dairy calves. Three different feeding schedules for milk-fed dairy calves were compared. All calves received milk twice a day, and had free access to concentrate, hay and water. Three groups of 12 calves (divided on two trials) were exposed to one of the following treatments from the age of 5 days to 9 weeks: group C (control) received milk at the same time every day, at 0700 and 1400. Group OD (occasional deviation) received the milk at the same time every day except on treatment days, one in week 5 and one in week 8, where they were fed 3 h later. Group IR (irregular schedule) received milk at irregular times throughout the experimental period. The first daily feeding took place between 0600 and 1300 and the second one between 1300 and 2100. When the calves were 5 and 8 weeks old, the behaviour of eight calves from each group was videorecorded for two days (48 h). The following behaviour was recorded: frequency and duration of lying bouts and frequency of comfort behaviour (defined as licking or scratching own body), eating, drinking, other oral behaviour and extending the head through the feeding barrier (HTB). The milk and concentrate consumption of the calves was measured and the calves were weighed weekly. Diseases were recorded.The results showed that at the age of 5 weeks, the calves in group IR differed from the control group C by performing more eating behaviour both on the control day (27.5 vs. 15.5; p<0.05) and the treatment day (28.8 vs. 18.3; p<0.05). At the age of 8 weeks, no differences were found in the behaviour between groups IR and C. When the OD calves were 5 weeks old, they responded to the delayed feeding by increasing drinking behaviour (14.5 vs. 9.0; p<0.05). When they were 8 weeks old, they showed increased frequency of comfort (195 vs. 122; p<.05), eating (37.5 vs. 27.9; p<0.05) and HTB behaviour (19.8 vs. 7.4; p<0.001) on the treatment day compared to the control day. The IR group did not respond to the same treatment except for a slight increase in drinking behaviour (9.6 vs. 6.5; p<0.05) at the age of 8 weeks. No differences were observed in the frequency or length of lying bouts, nor health or production parameters between the three groups.It is concluded that a predictable feeding schedule may not be very important for milk-fed dairy calves. However, when the calves are customised to predictable feeding times, occasional deviations from that schedule may cause frustration when their expectations are not fulfilled.     

Effects of feeding level and protein content of milk replacer on the performance of dairy herd replacements

It has been suggested that United Kingdom recommendations for feeding the neonatal calf (500 g milk replacer (MR)/day; 200-230 g CP/kg milk powder) are inadequate to sustain optimal growth rates in early life. The current study was undertaken with 153 high genetic merit, male and female Holstein-Friesian calves (PIN2000 = ￡48) born between September and March, with heifers reared and bred to calve at 24 months of age. Calves were allocated to one of four pre-weaning dietary treatments arranged in a 2 MR feeding level (5 v. 10 l/day) × 2 MR protein content (210 v. 270 g CP/kg dry matter (DM)) factorial design. MR was reconstituted at a rate of 120 g/l of water, throughout, and was offered via computerised automated milk feeders. Calves were introduced to pre-weaning diets at 5 days of age and weaned at day 56. During the first 56 days of life, calves offered 10 l MR/day had significantly higher liveweight gains (P < 0.001) than calves fed 5 l MR/day. No significant differences in liveweight gain were found between calves fed 210 g CP/kg DM MR and those fed 270 g CP/kg DM MR from birth to day 56. Differences in live weight and body size due to feeding level disappeared by day 90. Neither MR feeding level nor MR CP content affected age at first service or age at successful service, and with no milk production effects, the results indicate no post-weaning benefits of increased nutrition during the milk-feeding period in dairy heifers.     

Artificial dietary regime may impair subsequent foraging behaviour of hatchery-reared turbot released into the natural environment

When offered a size range of shrimp Crangon crangon , fewer naïve reared turbot Scophthalmus maximus fed than did wild fish, and those that fed took smaller prey. Analysis of feeding behaviour indicated differences between wild and naïve reared fish in the motivation to feed on novel prey and in prey recognition and capture efficiency. Feeding efficiency and motivation increased with experience and reared fish achieved the feeding rate of wild fish within the 9 days of the experiment. The 'creep' style of approach to shrimp was innate to naïve reared turbot. A comparative feeding experiment confirmed that experienced reared fish ate more prey than naïve reared fish. Naïve reared turbot selected pellets and attacked stones preferentially to shrimp, in contrast to wild and experienced reared fish, which selected shrimp. Stones were attacked due to the memory of pellet-like visual characteristics and this behaviour persisted in some reared fish for at least 6 weeks, illustrating a cost of memory in which changing environmental conditions cause previously learnt information to become misleading. The experimental data also demonstrated that differences may arise in the prey and feeding behaviour of wild and naïve reared fish, but that such differences diminish with experience.     

Cross-sucking and other oral behaviours in calves, and their relation to cow suckling and food provision

Abnormal oral behaviour in calves is believed to develop when there is a lack of opportunity to suckle, but it is unclear whether they need access to their mother or whether a multiple suckling system will suffice to prevent this behaviour from developing. Therefore, in an initial experiment, the behaviour of calves that suckled their own mother or another cow for 15 min each day was compared with that of artificially-reared calves which had no opportunity to suckle. Cows were mechanically milked twice daily, after which they were either suckled for 15 min by their own calf (Treatment O), multiple-suckled by other cows’ calves (Treatment M) or unsuckled with the calves reared artificially (Treatment A). There was no difference between treatments in the time that calves spent consuming milk, but suckling calves consumed less milk than those reared artificially. The incidence of cross-sucking was greater for non-suckled calves (1.8 events/day) than for suckled calves (0.33 events/day, with no difference between Treatments O and M). In the non-suckled calves, cross-sucking was at its highest frequency 1 min after the end of milk-feeding and declined linearly to negligible levels at 13 min post-milk feeding. For calves in this treatment, most (78%) of the cross-sucking was directed at the inguinal region (especially the udder or scrotum) of other calves, whereas in suckled calves, most of the cross-sucking (81%) was directed at the mouths of other calves. The time spent consuming concentrate feed, and the amount of feed consumed, was greater for artificially-reared calves, compared with suckled calves, suggesting that food ingestion could provide a replacement stimulus. In a second experiment, it was observed that before weaning, the time that calves spent licking their pen or bucket increased until feed intake was sufficient to stimulate significant amounts of rumination, after which it declined. It is concluded that cross-sucking of artificially-reared calves, which is derived from motivation to perform sucking in the inguinal region, can be prevented by providing short access to either the calf’s dam or another cow for two short periods each day. In the absence of a cow to suckle, the calves lick inanimate objects repeatedly until the consumption of solid food stimulates rumination.     

Performance, ruminal changes, behaviour and welfare of growing heifers fed a concentrate diet with or without barley straw

Two experiments were conducted to ascertain the effects of feeding an all-concentrate diet to growing heifers on performance, ruminal fermentation, behaviour and welfare. In experiment 1, eight tethered rumen fistulated Holstein heifers (143 ± 8.7 kg, initial BW) were used to study the effects of treatment on intake, ruminal changes and behaviour. In experiment 2, 48 Friesian female calves (initial BW = 84.5 ± 1.37 kg) were used to study the effects of treatment on performance, behaviour and welfare in feedlot conditions. In both experiments, treatments consisted of concentrate with barley straw (BS) or without barley straw (NBS) and feed was offered at 0830 h on an ad libitum basis. Experiment 1 was performed in four 42-day periods, and sampling was carried out in the last week of each period. Ruminal samples were collected over 3 days at 0, 4, 8 and 12 h post-feeding to measure pH, and volatile fatty acids (VFA) and NH(3)-N concentrations. Maintenance behaviour was video-recorded for 24 h over three consecutive days of each experimental period and feed intake pattern was studied by means of feed bunks mounted on digital platform scales. There were no statistical differences in average daily gain (ADG), concentrate dry matter (DM) intake or CP intake. In contrast, NDF intake and ADF intake were greater in heifers fed BS than NBS. Average ruminal pH was lower, whereas total VFA was greater, in heifers fed NBS diet. There were no differences in NH(3)-N, and in D- and L-lactate concentrations. Time spent in ruminating was shorter, and stereotypies were more frequent in heifers fed diet NBS compared with those fed BS. In experiment 2, nine 28-day periods were established, in which DM intake and ADG were measured, blood and faecal samples were taken for haptoglobin and glucocorticoid metabolites determination, respectively, as welfare indicators, and behaviour was monitored by video recording. Concentrate intake was similar in both treatments, but total feed intake was greater in heifers fed BS diet. As there were no differences in ADG between treatments, gain efficiency was lower in those fed BS than those fed NBS. Blood haptoglobin and faecal glucocorticoids metabolites were not different between treatments. In these competitive conditions, rumination was also reduced and stereotypic behaviour increased by straw exclusion. In conclusion, performance was either not affected or improved by straw exclusion, but animal behaviour was affected, suggesting a negative effect on animal welfare.     

Chillingham Cattle: Dominance and Affinities and Access to Supplementary Food

A herd of cattle of natural sex ratio and age distribution, inhabiting a 134-ha park in northern England, was studied during supplementary feeding in 4 winters. Interactions could be summarised by conventional dominance hierarchies, more strictly linear and less stable among males than among females. Personal associations among individuals were not important, but affinities among social classes were, in determining the composition of feeding groups. Dominant males often fed in the same groups as dominant females. Dominant animals were less often seen to feed alone, implying that social dominance did not confer exclusive access to food. Cattle often fed in groups of two or three; certain combinations (notably those including two males, or one male and one female, or three calves) were stable, others unstable, notably combinations of females and calves, or of two or three females. This implies that females may defend resources more vigorously against other females than males do against other males.     

Habituation of object contact in socially-reared and isolated rats (Rattus norvegicus)

Rats reared in social isolation were found to contact fewer novel objects in an open-field than their socially reared litter mates. They also contacted a smaller variety of objects, and contacted them in different ways. Social animals showed more manipulatory behaviour than the isolates, but there were no differences in sniffing. In a second experiment, employing a longer session, it was found that social animals showed more rapid habituation of object contact. This may account for previous claims that isolates show heightened levels of exploration.     

Post-partum reproduction in swamp buffalo cows at two feeding levels

Post-partum progesterone secretion, oestrus, and conception were monitored in two groups of eight swamp buffalo cows which were fed at “low” or “high” levels from 12 weeks before until 36 weeks after calving. Calf birth weights and pre-weaning mortality were not affected significantly by nutritional treatment, but the average growth rates of calves from birth to weaning at 26 weeks of age were greater (P<0.01) at the high (0.39 kg/day) than at the low (0.26 kg/day) feeding level. In five cows from each group which reared calves to weaning, average post-partum intervals to first oestrus were 190 and 144 days (P<0.10), and average post-partum intervals to conception were 222 and 169 days (P<0.05), at the low and high feeding levels, respectively. Plasma progesterone profiles indicated that normal post-partum luteal function at both feeding levels was commonly preceded by transient corpora lutea with subnormal progesterone secretion. Mean body weights at conception did not differ significantly between the two groups, suggesting that earlier post-partum conception in cows at the high feeding level was associated with their lower body weight loss and/or their faster body weight recovery after calving.     

Influence of age and breed on the binding of oxygen to red blood cells of bovine calves

Gustin, P., B. Detry, A. Robert, M. L. Cao, F. Lessire, C. Cambier, V. Katz, M. Ansay, A. Frans, and T. Clerbaux.Influence of age and breed on the binding of oxygen to red bloodcells of bovine calves. J. Appl.Physiol. 82(3): 784-790, 1997.The influence ofsomatic growth and genetic selection on the whole blood oxygen equilibrium curve (OEC) was measured under standard conditions indouble-muscled and dairy calves during their first 3 mo of life.Crossbreed animals were also investigated. Hemoglobin,2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG), Cl, andP_i concentrations were alsomeasured. The percentage of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) was determined. Theinfluence of exogenous Cl, P_i, andpH on the OEC was also assessed. ThePO₂ at 50% hemoglobin saturation(P₅₀) increased during somaticgrowth, probably because of the increase in DPG recorded indouble-muscled neonates and to the progressive disappearance of HbF inboth breeds. The oxygen exchange fraction (OEF%) was used to assessthe combined influence of the OEC shift and OEC shape changes on bloodoxygen desaturation under standard conditions, when thePO₂ decreases within a physiologicalrange. The OEF% showed an increase during the first month, then astabilization. The effects of Cl, P_i, and pH in Friesian calves weresimilar as in adult cattle. Double-muscled neonates had alower P₅₀, OEF% values, and DPG concentrations and higher hemoglobin and Cl concentrations than Friesian neonates. The P_iconcentration and the percentage of HbF were similar in both breeds.The pH and the Cl concentration had significantly less effect on theOEC in double-muscled than in Friesian calves. Crossbreed animalsexhibited intermediate parameter values, between those recorded fordouble-muscled and Friesian calves. All differences between breedsprogressively disappeared during the first month. These data show thatblood function changes markedly in calves during the first month of life and that genetic selection can alter blood function.

     

Genetic architecture of population differences in oviposition behaviour of the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus

Few studies have examined the genetic architecture of population differences in behaviour and its implications for population differentiation and adaptation. Even fewer have examined whether differences in genetic architecture depend on the environment in which organisms are reared or tested. We examined the genetic basis of differences in oviposition preference and egg dispersion between Asian (SI) and African (BF) populations of the seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus. We reared and tested females on each of two host legumes (cowpea and mung bean). The two populations differed in mean oviposition preference (BF females preferred cowpea seeds more strongly than did SI females) and egg dispersion (SI females distributed eggs more uniformly among seeds than did BF females). Observations of hybrid and backcross individuals indicated that only the population difference in oviposition preference could be explained by complete additivity, whereas substantial dominance and epistasis contributed to the differences in egg dispersion. Both rearing host and test host affected the relative magnitude of population differences in egg dispersion and the composite genetic effects. Our results thus demonstrate that the relative influence of epistasis and dominance on the behaviour of hybrids depends on the behaviour measured and that different aspects of insect oviposition are under different genetic control. In addition, the observed effect of rearing host and oviposition host on the relative importance of dominance and epistasis indicates that the genetic basis of population differences depends on the environment in which genes are expressed.     

Behavioural interactions of dairy cows with their newborn calves and the effects of parity

Continuous observations of 82 individually penned Friesian cows and their calves were made during the first 6 h post partum. The behaviour observed was similar to that described for wild ungulates of the ‘hider’ type. Cows showed a marked decrease in calf-directed activities with time after parturition. This was more pronounced in older animals, which recommenced ingestive behaviour sooner. The incidence of licking and other maternal behaviour depends upon the characteristics of the calf and upon the state of the mother. Close proximity between cow and calf was maintained, in small calving pens, by the mother at the first three calvings but by the calf after these. The eating of the afterbirth is considered to be anti-predator behaviour. Calves of primiparous dams spent more time suckling and suckled from more quarters than did calves of older cows. Primiparous dams showed a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behaviour.     

Effect of ad libitum feeding of Holstein Friesian calves on immunological parameters and molecular stress on a transcriptional level

Our aim was to compare the health and performance of ad libitum (ADLIB) and restrictedly fed Holstein Friesian heifer calves. Calves were selected to ADLIB (n = 13) and control (n = 13) groups randomly. The period of ADLIB feeding lasted for 3 weeks after colostrum supplementation. The calves in the control group received the same milk replacer, which was supplied according to the restrained feeding schedule of the farm. There was no difference between the two groups in weight, weight gain or movement activity, furthermore in the values of glucose, albumin, total protein, BHB, AST, oxidant and antioxidant status incl. dROM, PAT and OSI. The IL8 gene had higher levels (non significant, p > 0.05) of expression in the ADLIB group during the first 20 days of life, which indicates that ADLIB feeding might potentiate a stronger immune response to environmental stress. The IGF1 gene showed increased expression in the ADLIB fed group at almost all time points, however the difference was already detected on the first day of the study, indicating the importance of individual differences even within the same breed. During the first 10 days INS expression was higher in the restricted group, followed by a shift by day 20 and after, when the ADLIB group showed a higher relative expression level. The observed values describe a trend that, although not significant (p > 0.05), would seem to indicate that ADLIB feeding might potentiate a stronger immune response to environmental stress.