The Effect of Familiarity on Behavior of Kenneled Dogs During Interactions With Conspecifics

Kenneled environments often prevent direct physical contact between dogs, potentially causing stress, and so it has been recommended that such contact should be provided. This study examined the effect of familiarity on the behavior of dogs during off-lead interaction. Kenneled dogs (3 breeds) were given 15-min off-lead interactions with a familiar dog and an unfamiliar dog; the behavior of the focal dog and the distance between the dogs were recorded. More time in contact and interaction behaviors were recorded at 0 to 3 min with unfamiliar dogs than with familiar dogs. At 9 to 12 min, familiar pairs spent more time within 5 body lengths and more time being followed than unfamiliar pairs, who spent more time at more than 5 body lengths apart. This suggests that the initial interaction is more important when dogs are unfamiliar, but once this “greeting” has occurred, unfamiliar pairs are more likely to investigate their surroundings independently rather than together. Breed differences were observed only at 0 to 3 min. The study suggests that familiarity should be taken into account when assessing the effectiveness of conspecific contact as a potential enrichment for kennel-housed dogs.     

Analysis of the facilitatory effect of the ACTH-(4-9) analog ORG 2766 on active social contact in rats

Pairs of male rats were tested for active social interaction, either in a familiar test arena under low illumination or in an unfamiliar test arena under high illumination conditions. Rats tested in an unfamiliar environment and under high light, spent less time in active social contact than rats tested under familiar, low light conditions. This effect was most pronounced during the first half of the 10 minute test period. Intraperitoneal injections of ACTH-(1-24) and ACTH-(4-10) (50 micrograms/kg) administered 5 minutes before the test decreased, whereas the same dose of the synthetic ACTH-(4-9) analog ORG 2766 increased the time spent in active social contact, when rats were tested under unfamiliar, high light conditions. The effects of ACTH-(4-10) and ORG 2766 were present in the second and first half of the test period respectively. Dose response relationship studies with ORG 2766 showed that 0.5 micrograms/kg of this peptide facilitated social contact under both test conditions and the dose response relation followed an inverted U-shaped curve under the familiar low light condition, but not under the unfamiliar, high light condition. ACTH-(4-10) and ORG 2766 failed to influence active social contact, when administered 30 minutes before the test. The change in social contact by ACTH-(4-10) and ORG 2766 was not accompanied by an alteration in ambulation of the rats. It is concluded that ACTH-(4-10) and ORG 2766 decrease and increase respectively social interaction of pairs of rats. The expression of these effects however, depends on the test and treatment conditions and may be related to the action of brain-born ACTH-like peptides.     

The stimulatory effect of males on the initiation but not the maintenance of ovarian cycling in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)

Prior studies have shown that female cotton-top tamarins usually do not ovulate while living with natal groups, and most females do not ovulate until they are paired with an unfamiliar adult male. To examine the role of unfamiliar adult males on stimulating ovarian function, four cotton-top females were studied during three conditions: females living with their natal group for six weeks, living alone but exposed to a single unfamiliar adult male located 15 cm away from the female's cage for four weeks, and living with an unfamiliar adult male for six weeks. Behavior and urinary hormonal concentrations were measured during the three conditions. Exposure to the male consisted of visual, auditory, and airborne olfactory contact. First ovulation occurred during exposure to the unfamiliar male in three of the four females indicating that direct physical or sexual contact with the male is not required for onset of ovarian cycling. The fourth female did not ovulate even during six weeks of direct contact with the unfamiliar adult male. In addition, four parous females in either family groups (3) or singly caged (1) were examined for ovarian function 4–6 months after the death or removal of their mates. All femals continued to cycle in the absence of the male indicating that the male was not needed to continue ovarian cycling. In fact, two of the females were pregnant at the time their males died and both delivered normal infants and resumed cycling. The results of this study indicate that an unfamiliar adult male may facilitate the onset of ovarian cycling without being in direct contact with the female and visual, auditory, or airborne olfactory cues may be involved. Once repeated ovarian cycling occurs the male is not required to maintain ovarian function.     

Men with elevated testosterone levels show more affiliative behaviours during interactions with women

Testosterone (T) is thought to play a key role in male-male competition and courtship in many vertebrates, but its precise effects are unclear. We explored whether courtship behaviour in humans is modulated and preceded by changes in T. Pairs of healthy male students first competed in a non-physical contest in which their T levels became elevated. Each participant then had a short, informal interaction with either an unfamiliar man or woman. The sex of the stimulus person did not affect the participants' behaviour overall. However, in interactions with women, those men who had experienced a greater T increase during the contest subsequently showed more interest in the woman, engaged in more self-presentation, smiled more and made more eye contact. No such effects were seen in interactions with other men. This is the first study to provide direct evidence that elevating T during male-male competition is followed by increased affiliative behaviour towards women.     

Alaskan malamute chondrodysplasia--VIII. Incorporation of [14C]glucosamine and [3H]serine in hepatic metal-binding proteins of Canis familaris.

1. Hepatic proteins isolated from control kennel dogs bound small quantities of zinc and iron and the peptide fraction contained neither metal. 2. Zince loading of kennel dogs stimulated an hepatic uptake of five times more zinc and three times more iron than an equivalent copper load. The increase in metal concentration was noted in the 10,000 dalton protein. 3. Both the 12,000 and 10,000 dalton proteins isolated from kennel dogs contained more binding sites specific for zinc than for either copper or iron. All three proteins isolated from Alaskan Malamutes showed a smaller affinity for zinc than copper or iron. 4. Both copper and zinc loading stimulated an uptake of [14C]glucosamine and [3H]serine from the peptide fraction of control kennel dogs into the 10,000 dalton protein.     

Reproductive patterns in the domestic dog--a retrospective study of the Drever breed

The aim of this study was to examine the differences, between seasons of the year, in the distribution of matings and whelpings, litter size, pup deaths, and sex ratio in domestic dogs. Furthermore, we wanted to examine the effects of age and parity of the bitch at the time of whelping on litter size, as well as the effect of litter size on gestational length. A final aim was to investigate the fertility and frequency of whelping problems in a private kennel of Drever dogs. Data from the Swedish Kennel Club (SKK) registry for the Drever breed during 1995-2006, comprising a total of 2717 litters, were analyzed together with more detailed data from a private, professional kennel of Drevers, with a total of 285 matings and 224 whelpings, during the same time period. The most matings took place during winter, and the fewest during summer; consequently, most whelpings occurred during the winter and spring seasons. Of the 285 mated bitches, 78.6% whelped, 6.25% experienced dystocia, and 5.36% underwent Cesarean section. The pup death rate was 7.6%. The largest litters were born during spring. Litter size was negatively correlated with duration of pregnancy (r=-0.18). Each pup more than average caused a shortening of the gestation by 0.25 days, and each pup less a corresponding lengthening. Bitches giving birth to their first litter after 4 years of age produced a smaller litter than younger bitches. Litter size decreased after 5 years in all bitches. The number of born pups at the private kennel increased from the first to the third parity, then decreased. The number of registered pups increased from the first to the second parity in the SKK data and from the second to the third parity in the data from the private kennel, then decreased. Mating a bitch only once resulted in a smaller litter size. None of the studied factors had any effect on the sex ratio of the pups. There were significant differences between males in whelping rate among the mated bitches, but no difference in mean litter size, which indicates a female problem rather than a male one. Available data suggest that the domestic dog is still under considerable seasonal influence, although modified by ambient and management factors.     

Olfactory cues in discrimination among individuals in dominance hierarchies in the cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study was to explore the olfactory recognition mechanisms used by individual subordinate male cockroaches, Nauphoeta cinerea (Olivier), in a dominance hierarchy. Results of two independent sets of experiments, one using an olfactometer and the other using an arena, suggest that olfactory cues are important to males. Subordinate males did not avoid dominant male odour in an olfactometer but could discriminate between the odours of familiar and unfamiliar individual dominant males, preferring the odour of the dominant male with which they had previous social contact. Since test subordinates did not avoid dominant male odours in the olfactometer, it is possible that the distance an individual remains from a dominant is important. To test this, individual dominant and subordinate males were tethered in the centre of an arena. Subordinate males were introduced into the arena and allowed to approach the tethered male. They approached tethered dominants and subordinates differently, and tended to keep away from the dominants. Tethered males unfamiliar to the test animals were avoided as well.     

Elimination Behavior of Shelter Dogs Housed in Double Compartment Kennels

For animals in confinement housing the housing structure has tremendous potential to impact well being. Dogs in animal shelters are often housed in one of two types of confinement housing – single kennels and rooms or double compartment kennels and rooms most often separated by a guillotine door. This study examines the effect of housing on the location of elimination behavior in dogs housed in double compartment kennels were the majority of the dogs were walked daily. One side of the kennel contained the food, water and bed and the other side was empty and available except during cleaning time. Location of urination and defecation was observed daily for 579 dogs housed in indoor double compartment kennels for a total of 4440 days of observation. There were 1856 days (41.9%) when no elimination was noted in the kennel. Feces, urine or both were observed in the kennel on 2584 days (58.1%). When elimination occurred in the kennel the probability of fecal elimination on the opposite side of the bed/food/water was 72.5% (95% CI 69.05% to 75.69%). The probability of urination on the opposite side of the bed/food/water was 77.4% (95% CI 74.33% to 80.07%). This study demonstrates the strong preference of dogs to eliminate away from the area where they eat, drink and sleep. Double compartment housing not only allows this – it allows staff the ability to provide safe, efficient, humane daily care and confers the added benefits of reducing risks for disease transmission for the individual dog as well as the population.     

Judging a Dog by Its Cover: Morphology but Not Training Influences Visitor Behavior toward Kenneled Dogs at Animal Shelters

Currently, visitor behavior in companion animal shelters is not adequately explored. A sequence of experiments investigated how visitors interacted with kenneled dogs at an animal shelter and whether training dogs to not engage in undesirable behavior in their kennels would evoke more interest from shelter visitors. In a set of two experiments, two sides of an animal shelter were differentially entered into training phases in a multiple baseline design. During the training phase, dogs were trained to not engage in undesirable in-kennel behavior (i.e., to not be in the back of the kennel, to not face backwards, to not lean on kennel walls, and to not bark) through pairing of the visual presentation of the experimenters (experiment 1) and shelter visitors (experiment 2) with treats. Across both experiments, visitors attended to approximately 35% of kenneled dogs and only spent an average of 15 s looking at individual dogs. We found that whereas training was effective in decreasing undesirable behavior in dogs (experiment 1: U = 4.83, p < 0.0001; experiment 2: U = 4.01, p = 0.0001), only morphology influenced visitor behavior. In experiment 1, morphologically preferred dogs (i.e., puppies, long-coated dogs, small dogs, and certain breeds) had a 1.3 times higher frequency of visits to their kennel (F_{(1, 248)} = 5.93, p < 0.05), and in experiment 2, these dogs had a 9 times higher frequency of being taken out of their kennel for further inspection (F_{(1, 69)} = 4.66, p < 0.05), compared to other dogs. One reason for a lack of effect of training may be the relatively small number of visitors observed (n = 115 across both experiments). An alternative reason may be that shelter visitors pay more attention to the morphology rather than the lack of undesirable behavior of kenneled dogs.     

Aggression with mixed age-sex groups of bolivian squirrel monkeys following single animal introductions and new group formations

The social organization of the Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) is thought to be sexually segregated, with males and females forming separate social groups during the nonbreeding season. To investigate the influence of this social order on patterns of aggression, controlled single animal introductions within established groups and establishment of new groups were studied in a systematic manner. Behavioral observations were made using an all-occurrences technique to sample all agonistic interactions. In study I, 4 animals of each age-sex class (adult males and females, juvenile males and females) were introduced one at a time into 4 different social groups composed of 1 adult male and 8 to 10 adult females. Behavioral observations were made prior to and after the introductions. Newly introduced adult males received significantly more contact aggression than other age classes. Only the adult females increased aggression after the introduction of new animals. In study II, new social groups were formed and behavioral observations were made following formation. One group was formed from 7 pairs of familiar females and an unfamiliar adult male. This group had a high frequency of aggression during the first half hour, with contact aggression rising to peaks at 3 and 5 h. The second group consisted of 10 familiar females, 2 pairs of familiar females and an unfamiliar male. There was a significant peak in contact aggression 3 h into the observation.     

Release and survival of Echinococcus eggs in different environments in Turkana, and their possible impact on the incidence of hydatidosis in man and livestock

In Turkana, Kenya, a prevalence of hydatidosis of nearly 10% has been recorded among the pastoralists yet their livestock have a much lower prevalence of the disease. The present study investigated the release from dogs and subsequent survival of Echinococcus eggs in Turkana huts, water-holes and in the semi-arid environment. The results were compared with the survival of eggs of Taenia hydatigena and T. saginata. The study was repeated under the cooler and moister conditions found in Maasailand where livestock have a greater incidence of hydatid disease than in Turkana but where the incidence in man is ten times lower. The average number of Echinococcus eggs per proglottid is 823. Nine percent of these remain in proglottids 15 minutes after release from a dog and the released eggs lose their viability in less than two, 48 and 300 hours in the sun, huts and water in Turkana respectively: the major influencing factor being temperature. The greater survival of eggs in the houses, coupled with the fact that dogs congregate for most of the day in the small houses facilitating a close man:dog contact, provide ideal conditions for the transmission of the parasite to man. The hostile environmental conditions and lack of contact between dogs and livestock contributes to the lower infection rate in livestock. Conversely in Maasailand, Echinococcus eggs survive in the environment for longer than three weeks and in addition, dogs are used for herding. This partly explains the higher infection rate among Maasai livestock but the low human infection rate remains arcane and requires further study.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

High incidence of Trypanosoma cruzi infections in dogs directly detected through longitudinal tracking at 10 multi-dog kennels,Texas, USA

Canine Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is increasingly recognized as a health concern for dogs in the USA, and infected dogs may signal geographic regions of risk for human disease. Dogs living in multi-dog kennel environments (kennels with more than one dog) where triatomine vectors are endemic may be at high risk for infection. We monitored a cohort of 64 T. cruzi-infected and uninfected dogs across 10 kennels in Texas, USA, to characterize changes in infection status over one year. We used robust diagnostic criteria in which reactivity on multiple independent platforms was required to be considered positive. Among the 30 dogs enrolled as serologically- and/or PCR-positive, all but one dog showed sustained positive T. cruzi diagnostic results over time. Among the 34 dogs enrolled as serologically- and PCR-negative, 10 new T. cruzi infections were recorded over a 12-month period. The resulting incidence rate for dogs initially enrolled as T. cruzi-negative was 30.7 T. cruzi infections per 100 dogs per year. This study highlights the risk of T. cruzi infection to dogs in kennel environments. To protect both dog and human health, there is an urgent need to develop more integrated vector control methods as well as prophylactic and curative antiparasitic treatment options for T. cruzi infection in dogs.     

Human contact and the effects of acute stress on cows at milking

We examined the effects of novelty/isolation stress on cows at milking and whether human contact reduced the stress. Holstein cows (n=18) were observed during three experimental milkings following a balanced order: (1) control (C) - milked in usual place; (2) novelty/isolation stress (S) - milked alone in an unfamiliar room; (3) human contact (HC) - milked in unfamiliar room and brushed by a familiar person. Behavior and heart rate during milking, milk yield and residual milk following oxytocin injections were recorded, and blood samples assayed for oxytocin and cortisol. Cows defecated/urinated and vocalized more and made more steps during milking in the unfamiliar room and human contact prevented this increase. Cows kicked and lifted their legs less in the unfamiliar room, but human contact did not affect this. Both plasma cortisol concentrations and heart rates were higher when cows were milked in the unfamiliar room. Although human contact reduced heart rates during the initial period of isolation, heart rates during milking and cortisol concentrations were not affected by human contact. Milk yield was lower, residual milk higher, and oxytocin during milking was lower in the unfamiliar room but this was not changed by human contact. Cows milked alone in an unfamiliar room showed signs of acute stress and gave less milk due to higher residual milk and reduced oxytocin secretion. Human contact reduced some behavioral signs of agitation and heart rate, but had no effect on milk yield or hormonal responses. For dairy cows, human contact may not be sufficiently comforting to be able to reduce the endocrine response to novelty/isolation stress.     

Influence of replacement rate on the welfare of sows introduced to a large dynamic group

This experiment investigated the effects of replacing 10, 20, 30 or 40% of a dynamic group of forty sows on the welfare of newly-introduced animals. The experiment was replicated five times, using a total of 200 multiparous sows. Replacements took place at 3 week intervals, and 3 days prior to sows being added to the group the same number of animals were removed from the group. Sows were added to the dynamic group as pre-formed groups of four animals which had resided together for a period of 5 weeks beginning directly after their piglets were weaned. Replacement rate did not appear to influence overall levels of aggression to which newly-introduced animals were exposed on the day of mixing, however aggression among newly-introduced animals increased significantly as replacement rate increased between 20 and 40% (P<0.05). Injury levels measured 1 week post mixing did not differ significantly between treatments. Newly-introduced sows in the 10% replacement rate treatment spent more time in slatted areas and less time in kennel areas during the first week post mixing than newly-introduced sows in other treatments (P<0.05). In addition, during the first week post mixing when sows in the 10% replacement rate treatment entered kennel areas they spent less time lying down (P<0.05), and when they did lie down they spent less time lying in contact with other animals and more time lying close to the wall (P<0.05) compared to newly-introduced sows in other treatments. It is suggested that this type of behaviour represents intimidation from resident sows. Newly-introduced sows in the 20, 30 and 40% replacement rate treatments showed similar lying behaviour. In all treatments the newly-introduced sows showed a significant increase in the time spent in kennel areas, and the time spent lying in contact with ‘resident’ sows during the first week post mixing, which suggests that the process of social integration with the resident group had begun. The results of the present study suggest that the welfare of newly-introduced sows in dynamic groups may be compromised when replacement rates of 10% are used. There appears to be no additional welfare benefit associated with increasing replacement rate above 20%.     

Exploring human interaction and diet effects on the behavior of dogs in a public animal shelter

This study examined the effects of 2 manipulations-a brief, regular period of human contact and diet-on the behavior of dogs confined in a public animal shelter. A behavioral battery designed to assess reactions to novel situations, and a test of responsiveness to an unfamiliar human were administered both prior to (pretest) and immediately following (posttest) the 8-week intervention period. Overall, the regular periods of increased human contact together with a diet that contained augmented levels of digestible protein, fat, calories, and animal-derived ingredients reduced signs of behavioral reactivity from pretest to posttest. In some cases, the comparison diet appeared more effective, but only for dogs receiving minimal human interaction. The results indicate that a combination of human interaction and high quality diet may positively affect the behavior of dogs in animal shelters.     

Kennel enrichment: exercise and socialization of dogs

In the last 50 years, there has been a growing need for storage and management systems for the production and maintenance of large numbers of dogs. Unwanted dogs and strays, detained in kennels, stay for various lengths of time. Large kennels also produce dogs for sale as companion animals, for the service dog industry (police and guide dogs), for biomedical research, and for use by dog food companies. Across the United States, literally tens of thousands of dogs are born in kennels and spend their lives in kennels. The laboratory dog, the kennel dog, the service dog, and the companion dog are in an evolutionary transition period, accompanied by concomitant adaptation to stresses signaled by a high frequency of genetic disease and behavioral abnormalities. For kennel enrichment programs, such as socialization and exercise, the modern kenneled dog is a genetically moving target. Specific recommendations apply neither to all breeds nor to the variations within a single breed.     

Exploring Human Interaction and Diet Effects on the Behavior of Dogs in a Public Animal Shelter

This study examined the effects of 2 manipulations-a brief, regular period of human contact and diet-on the behavior of dogs confined in a public animal shelter. A behavioral battery designed to assess reactions to novel situations, and a test of responsiveness to an unfamiliar human were administered both prior to (pretest) and immediately following (posttest) the 8-week intervention period. Overall, the regular periods of increased human contact together with a diet that contained augmented levels of digestible protein, fat, calories, and animal-derived ingredients reduced signs of behavioral reactivity from pretest to posttest. In some cases, the comparison diet appeared more effective, but only for dogs receiving minimal human interaction. The results indicate that a combination of human interaction and high quality diet may positively affect the behavior of dogs in animal shelters.     

Effects of Pair-Bond and Social Context on Male–Female Interactions in Captive Titi Monkeys (Callicebus moloch, Primates: Cebidae)

In monogamous species, an abiding relationship between a specific adult male and a specific adult female is a defining feature of the social system. The interactions between these individuals are influenced by many factors, including not only the history of their relationship (for example, development of a mutual bond), but also the immediate effects of the prevailing social context (for example, presence and sex of extra‐pair conspecifics). In this study we examined the effects of an existing bond and of social context on interactions between adult heterosexual pairs of the monogamous titi monkeys (Callicebus moloch). Twelve adult males and 12 adult females were tested with their cagemates and with an unfamiliar partner of the opposite sex in five social contexts: (1) mated male–female pair; (2) unfamiliar pair; (3) single female; (4) single male; and (5) empty stimulus cage. Results show that mated pairs were more affiliative than unfamiliar pairs and differentiated social contexts more sharply. Males were more responsive to context than females. Distance between mates was less and physical contact was more frequent in the presence of male–female pairs or a single male, than in the presence of a single female or an empty cage. These findings suggest that the presence and sex of strangers have a stronger influence on male–female interactions when the pair has an existing relationship.     

Use of Accelerometers to Measure Stress Levels in Shelter Dogs

Stress can compromise welfare in any confined group of nonhuman animals, including those in shelters. However, an objective and practical method for assessing the stress levels of individual dogs housed in a shelter does not exist. Such a method would be useful for monitoring animal welfare and would allow shelters to measure the effectiveness of specific interventions for stress reduction. In this pilot study, activity levels were studied in 13 dogs using accelerometers attached to their collars. Behavioral stress scores as well as urinary and salivary cortisol levels were measured to determine if the dogs' activity levels while confined in the kennel correlated with behavioral and physiological indicators of stress in this population. The results indicated that the accelerometer could be a useful tool to study stress-related activity levels in dogs. Specific findings included a correlation between the salivary cortisol and maximum activity level (r = .62, p = .025) and a correlation between the urine cortisol-to-creatinine ratio and average activity level (r = .61, p = .028) among the study dogs. Further research is needed to better understand the complex relationship between stress and activity level among dogs in a kennel environment.     

Male stimuli are necessary for female sexual behavior and uterine growth in prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster)

In reproductively naive female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) direct contact with male urine or housing in a male-soiled cage, in the absence of physical contact, resulted in increased uterine weights, but did not reliably elicit behavioral estrus (defined by lordosis). Physical contact with an unfamiliar male, for 1 hr or more, followed by 30 or 48 hr of continuous access to a male-soiled cage, induced lordosis in approximately two-thirds of the females tested. When females were physically exposed to a male for 18 hr and tested 6 hr later, 70% showed lordosis. However, when females receiving either 1 or 18 hr of male contact were removed from the presence of the male and placed in a clean cage for 24 hr, only 29-37% of the females subsequently showed lordosis. These results suggest that direct physical contact with the male or chemical stimuli from the male may be necessary to induce and maintain behavioral estrus in female prairie voles.