Use of mitochondrial and nuclear genes to infer the origin of two endemic pigeons from the Canary Islands

DNA nucleotide sequences from two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2) and the nuclear intron 7 of β-fibrinogen were obtained to infer the phylogenetic origin of the two endemic Canarian pigeons: Bolle’s Pigeon (Columba bollii) and Laurel Pigeon (C. junoniae). Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear genes based on maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference all converged into a congruent topology: C. bollii clusters together with the Wood Pigeon (C. palumbus) which is common in Europe and Asia, while C. junoniae was found near the base of the clade that includes other species of the genus Columba from the Old World. Laurel Pigeon probably represents an old lineage that might have colonized the Canary Islands a long time ago (20 My) while Bolle’s Pigeon might have arrived on the archipelago much later during the Upper Miocene (5 My). Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Observations of predation by corvids at a Marbled Murrelet nest

ABSTRACT.   Unlike other alcids, Marbled Murrelets ( Brachyramphus marmoratus ) typically nest solitarily on large platforms in the upper canopy of old-growth coniferous trees. Although Marbled Murrelets exhibit characteristics that minimize the risk of predation, habitat fragmentation has likely increased the risk of nest predation by corvids. Using a video camera at a nest in northern California, we observed nest fates for 4 yr (2002–2005). These recordings revealed two cases of egg predation by a Steller's Jay ( Cyanocitta stelleri ) and a Common Raven ( Corvus corax ), respectively. In both instances, the egg was carried from the nest site, leaving no evidence that nesting had occurred. Our observations revealed (1) the need to be conservative in estimates of nesting attempts and nesting success of Marbled Murrelets based only on the presence or absence of eggshell fragments or feces, (2) that not all predation attempts were successful, and (3) that murrelets may be more susceptible to predation early in the incubation period when adults may be less attentive to eggs and, after hatching, when young are less than 14 d old. We encourage efforts to minimize anthropogenic activities that may increase local corvid densities or disturb murrelets during the early incubation period.     

Nest site attributes and temporal patterns of northern flicker nest loss: effects of predation and competition

To date, most studies of nest site selection have failed to take into account more than one source of nest loss (or have combined all sources in one analysis) when examining nest site characteristics, leaving us with an incomplete understanding of the potential trade-offs that individuals may face when selecting a nest site. Our objectives were to determine whether northern flickers (Colaptes auratus) may experience a trade-off in nest site selection in response to mammalian nest predation and nest loss to a cavity nest competitor (European starling, Sturnus vulgaris). We also document within-season temporal patterns of these two sources of nest loss with the hypothesis that flickers may also be constrained in the timing of reproduction under both predatory and competitive influence. Mammalian predators frequently depredated flicker nests that were: lower to the ground, less concealed by vegetation around the cavity entrance and at the base of the nest tree, closer to coniferous forest edges and in forest clumps with a high percentage of conifer content. Proximity to coniferous edges or coniferous trees increased the probability of nest predation, but nests near conifers were less likely to be lost to starlings. Flickers may thus face a trade-off in nest site selection with respect to safety from predators or competitors. Models suggested that peaks of nest predation and nest loss to eviction occurred at the same time, although a competing model suggested that the peak of nest loss to starlings occurred 5 days earlier than the peak of mammalian predation. Differences in peaks of mammalian predation and loss to starlings may constrain any adjustment in clutch initiation date by flickers to avoid one source of nest loss.     

空气污染对信鸽比赛个体归巢速度的影响

空气污染作为一种有害的环境因素,对人类及动物的生理、心理均有影响.在鸟类中,信鸽(Columba livia)是研究空气污染影响的理想模型.为探究空气污染的行为学效应,通过收集并筛选2018和2019年成都市信鸽协会春秋两个季节举办的64场赛事共285羽参赛5场及以上的信鸽不同空距等级下的归巢速度,利用混合线性模型分析...     

Contrast in edge vegetation structure modifies the predation risk of natural ground nests in an agricultural landscape

Nest predation risk generally increases nearer forest-field edges in agricultural landscapes. However, few studies test whether differences in edge contrast (i.e. hard versus soft edges based on vegetation structure and height) affect edge-related predation patterns and if such patterns are related to changes in nest conspicuousness between incubation and nestling feeding. Using data on 923 nesting attempts we analyse factors influencing nest predation risk at different edge types in an agricultural landscape of a ground-cavity breeding bird species, the Northern Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe). As for many other bird species, nest predation is a major determinant of reproductive success in this migratory passerine. Nest predation risk was higher closer to woodland and crop field edges, but only when these were hard edges in terms of ground vegetation structure (clear contrast between tall vs short ground vegetation). No such edge effect was observed at soft edges where adjacent habitats had tall ground vegetation (crop, ungrazed grassland). This edge effect on nest predation risk was evident during the incubation stage but not the nestling feeding stage. Since wheatear nests are depredated by ground-living animals our results demonstrate: (i) that edge effects depend on edge contrast, (ii) that edge-related nest predation patterns vary across the breeding period probably resulting from changes in parental activity at the nest between the incubation and nestling feeding stage. Edge effects should be put in the context of the nest predator community as illustrated by the elevated nest predation risk at hard but not soft habitat edges when an edge is defined in terms of ground vegetation. These results thus can potentially explain previously observed variations in edge-related nest predation risk.     

Artificial nest predation rates in tropical and temperate forests: a review of the effects of edge and nest site

Nest predation rates are believed to be higher in tropical than in temperate forests. This notion is central in explaining different life history traits of tropical and temperate birds, but it is not known whether this assertion is true for all nest sites, such as ground and shrub nests, and at different distances from forest edge. I reviewed 22 studies using artificial nest experiments which concurrently contrasted predation rates of ground and shrub nests in temperate and tropical forests and found, contrary to the current dogma, no overall difference in predation rates between regions. However, there was a significant interaction between region and nest site. Ground nest predation rates were significantly higher in the tropical region, while predation rates on shrub nests were similar between regions. Within the tropical region, ground nests had significantly higher predation rates than shrub nests. Elevated nest predation rates at forest edges were found in both temperate and tropical forests. The results may have great implications for expected patterns of avian life histories and for the effects of forest fragmentation in temperate and tropical regions. First, if nest predation affects avian life histories, my results predict ground-nesting species in tropical forests to have shorter nestling periods, more broods and smaller clutch sizes than shrub-nesting species. Second, vulnerability of ground- and shrub-nesting guilds is suggested to differ between regions due to differences in forest vegetation structure, and the composition of predator faunas and their specific responses to forest fragmentation. Data to test these hypotheses are limited, but agree with the results of this review.     

Parent birds assess nest predation risk: influence of cavity condition and avian nest predator activity

Skutch hypothesized that nest predators visually assess parental activities to locate a prey nest, whereas parents modify fitness‐related traits to reduce the probability of nest predation. We examined how cavity condition and parental activity interact with avian nest predators to shape the nest success of two coexisting parid species, marsh tits Poecile palustris and oriental tits Parus minor, breeding in nest‐boxes during the incubation period. Nest‐boxes were manipulated to create a prolonged risk of nest predation (entrance diameter 2.6 cm control vs 5.5 cm treatment) soon after clutch completion. To measure changes in parental behavior, we also simultaneously simulated a pulsed risk of nest predation, using sound playbacks of a coexisting control bird and an avian nest predator. We found that the parent tits merely responded the pulsed risk, presumably due to an environment with high avian nest predator encounters, compared to the prolonged risk. Instead, both species spent more time on vigilance at the nest, only under prolonged risk conditions. The activity of corvids near the nest‐box was higher in the marsh tit than that in oriental tits. This activity was also higher in the treatment nest box than that in the control nest‐box. Nest predation during the incubation period was higher in marsh tits than in oriental tits, presumably due to higher and more plastic vigilance in oriental tits, compared to marsh tits. Our results highlight that the differences in cavity condition and parental activities at the nests of two coexisting non‐excavators may contribute to differential nest predation by attracting avian nest predators.     

Woodpigeons nesting in association with hobby falcons: advantages and choice rules

Many bird species nest in close association with other bolder and more aggressive birds which provide protection against nest predators. The woodpigeons, Columba palumbus, that nest in poplar plantations in Northern Italy are found almost exclusively clumped around hobby, Falco subbuteo, nests. Woodpigeons settle in the area and build their nests after the hobby has started nesting. We carried out experiments with dummy nests and observations on woodpigeon nests. Dummy woodpigeon nests placed near a hobby's nest suffered less depredation by hooded crows, Corvus corone cornix, than those placed far from it. A logistic regression analysis showed that three variables, hobby nesting stage, distance from the hobby's nest and the hobby's aggressiveness, influenced the probability of nest predation. The degree of protection varied during the hobby's nesting period and was highest when chicks were in the nest. The hobby's aggressiveness against intruders varied both between and within individuals during different nesting phases. The predation rate of dummy nests associated with the falcon was negatively correlated with the aggressiveness score of the hobby during the 6 days of dummy nest exposure. Observations on real nests showed that woodpigeons selected hobbies that had a high fledging success, and a more vigorous defensive behaviour. Clues that would allow woodpigeons to choose the best protector may be early nesting by the hobby and its aggressiveness. Hobbies preyed on adult woodpigeons, but the risk incurred by the woodpigeons was low compared with the very high risk of nest predation in this area. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Plasticity of nest-site selection in the trumpeter finch: A comparison between two different habitats

In habitats with more predators, a species is expected to breed in safer sites and be less successful than in predator-impoverished habitats. We tested this hypothesis by studying nest-habitat selection and nest predation in two populations of Trumpeter finch (Bucanetes githagineus). One breeds in a predator-rich habitat (Tabernas, Iberian Peninsula), and the other is found on an island with fewer predators (La Oliva, Canary Islands). In both localities, we studied the features of nests in two different substrates, on the ground and in cliffs, including visibility and position in the cliff. We measured the habitat characteristics in a series of plots around the ground nests and compared them to random points. We also studied the influence of nest features and habitat selection on predation of both nest types. Trumpeter finches built more nests in cliffs in Tabernas, probably because there are more cliffs available there. In this locality, the patches selected for ground nesting had below-average vegetation cover, lower vegetation height, and were on steeper slopes. In La Oliva, they selected above-average vegetation height and steeper slopes. Cliff nests were less predated than ground nests in La Oliva, but not in Tabernas. The only variable that affected survival rates in Tabernas was the height of vegetation around ground nests, with nests in lower vegetation having higher survival rates. These results suggest that locality-related differences in habitat selection by vegetation height could be related to the different predator assemblages present in any given area, though we cannot rule out confounding influences of other differences between the two sites.     

Edge effect on bird nest predation in the fragmented caldén (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Prosopis caldenia</Emphasis>) forest of central Argentina: an experimental analysis

Clearing of caldén (Prosopis caldenia) forests for agriculture and cattle raising in east-central La Pampa Province, central Argentina, has created a highly fragmented landscape, a condition that has resulted in adverse effects on birds in other forests, mainly through increased predation rates near forest edges. We evaluated bird nest predation rates using artificial nests, assessing the effects of forest fragment size, distance to the edge and nest height. We measured survival rate of 570 artificial nests located in trees, in bushes and on the ground, at different distances from the edge, in six forest fragments ranging in size from 2.1 to 117.6 ha, during two consecutive breeding seasons. Nest predation rates were significantly related with the number of days of exposition of the nest, nest height and distance to the edge, whereas fragment size and year of the experiment were not associated with predation rates. Ground nests were less likely to be predated than those located in bushes and trees. Predation rates decreased with the distance to the edge, showing a pattern consistent with the existence of an edge effect.     

Landscape and anti-predation determinants of nest-site selection, nest distribution and productivity in a Mediterranean population of Long-eared Owls Asio otus

Nest predation is an important determinant of owl breeding success. We studied Long-eared Owl Asio otus productivity and attributes of nest-sites at the microhabitat and landscape scales in a Mediterranean locality over an 8-year period. We examined the effect on nest location and productivity of protective cover in concealing the nest from aerial and terrestrial predators. A dense cover of ivy and tree-foliage at canopy level favoured nest location but not productivity. By contrast, high shrub cover beneath the nest was selected by Owls and was positively related to both the site reoccupancy rate and the overall number of young fledged. Pre-fledging Owls use the ground, where they are exposed to terrestrial predators, which are much more abundant in the study area than are aerial predators. Our results therefore support the hypothesis that Owls adapt nest-site choice to local sources of predation risk. As reported elsewhere, Long-eared Owls in our study area showed restricted territoriality and nested in clusters. As active nest-sites during the same breeding season were more than 1 km apart on average, and their productivity was never greater for clustered nests than for more isolated nests, nest aggregation could not be interpreted as a case of facultative colonial breeding, which has been reported for this species in other areas. Neither landscape variables indicative of the availability of foraging areas nor structural attributes that protect young from predators explained the remarkable scarcity of nests in half of the study area. Unmeasured factors such as human disturbance could explain the pattern of distribution of Long-eared Owl nests.     

Clutch predation in great tinamous Tinamus major and implications for the evolution of egg color

Egg camouflage has been found to reduce predation in several ground‐nesting species. Therefore, the evolution of eggs that lack camouflage in ground nesting birds is puzzling. Even though clutch predation in the tropics is high, tinamous are the only tropical ground‐nesting birds that do not build a nest and do not lay cryptic eggs. I studied predation of great tinamou clutches in a lowland tropical forest and found that risk of predation was higher during incubation when the eggs are covered by the parent, than during laying when they are exposed, suggesting that predators primarily use cues from the incubating males to locate the clutch and not cues from the eggs. Clutch size had no effect on predation rate, even though larger clutches are more conspicuous to a human observer. Predation by visual cues is likely reduced during incubation by the camouflaged plumage and high nest attendance of males. If most predators use cues from the incubating male and not the eggs to locate clutches, then conspicuous egg color may have evolved in great tinamous as an intra‐specific signal. I evaluate hypotheses that may explain the maintenance of conspicuous egg color in tinamous.     

Frugivory in European Laurel: how extinct seed dispersers have been substituted

Capsule Extinction of ancient frugivores during the Quaternary has led to a depauperated seed disperser community for Laurus nobilis and a tight mutualism between the plant and the Blackbird Turdus merula.

Aims To describe a present-day frugivore assemblage of natural Laurel populations in southern Spain.

Methods Eight fruiting trees of different size were monitored with binoculars during 52 hours spread across one ripening season, and the identity and behaviour of foraging birds were recorded. Additional point counts were used to record the avifauna of the surroundings.

Results Despite a diverse frugivore community being present, Laurel fruits are almost exclusively (99%) consumed by Blackbird and rarely (1%) by Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. Blackbirds concentrate at fruiting trees and individuals may remain there for several days. Birds usually forage in small groups and return at intervals of 12–14 minutes.

Conclusion The Blackbird population of the study area forages extensively on the energy-rich Laurel fruits, while the plants depend exclusively on this bird species for seed dispersal. Consequences of the depauperate frugivore community and the tight mutualism between Blackbirds and Laurels on plant recruitment and conservation are discussed.     

Nest predation increases with parental activity: separating nest site and parental activity effects.

Alexander Skutch hypothesized that increased parental activity can increase the risk of nest predation. We tested this hypothesis using ten open-nesting bird species in Arizona, USA. Parental activity was greater during the nestling than incubation stage because parents visited the nest frequently to feed their young during the nestling stage. However, nest predation did not generally increase with parental activity between nesting stages across the ten study species. Previous investigators have found similar results. We tested whether nest site effects might yield higher predation during incubation because the most obvious sites are depredated most rapidly. We conducted experiments using nest sites from the previous year to remove parental activity. Our results showed that nest sites have highly repeatable effects on nest predation risk; poor nest sites incurred rapid predation and caused predation rates to be greater during the incubation than nestling stage. This pattern also was exhibited in a bird species with similar (i.e. controlled) parental activity between nesting stages. Once nest site effects are taken into account, nest predation shows a strong proximate increase with parental activity during the nestling stage within and across species. Parental activity and nest sites exert antagonistic influences on current estimates of nest predation between nesting stages and both must be considered in order to understand current patterns of nest predation, which is an important source of natural selection.     

Partitioning the sources of demographic variation reveals density‐dependent nest predation in an island bird population

Ecological factors often shape demography through multiple mechanisms, making it difficult to identify the sources of demographic variation. In particular, conspecific density can influence both the strength of competition and the predation rate, but density‐dependent competition has received more attention, particularly among terrestrial vertebrates and in island populations. A better understanding of how both competition and predation contribute to density‐dependent variation in fecundity can be gained by partitioning the effects of density on offspring number from its effects on reproductive failure, while also evaluating how biotic and abiotic factors jointly shape demography. We examined the effects of population density and precipitation on fecundity, nest survival, and adult survival in an insular population of orange‐crowned warblers (Oreothlypis celata) that breeds at high densities and exhibits a suite of traits suggesting strong intraspecific competition. Breeding density had a negative influence on fecundity, but it acted by increasing the probability of reproductive failure through nest predation, rather than through competition, which was predicted to reduce the number of offspring produced by successful individuals. Our results demonstrate that density‐dependent nest predation can underlie the relationship between population density and fecundity even in a high‐density, insular population where intraspecific competition should be strong.     

Zwei extrem gef?hrdete Tauben des Lorbeerwaldes,Columba (trocaz) bollii undC. junoniae, auf Teneriffa

Zusammenfassung Die den Lorbeerwald bewohnende KanarentaubeColumba bollii ist entgegen manchen Befürchtungen auf Teneriffa noch nicht ausgestorben. Sie bewohnt noch schwer zugängliche Schluchten im Nordosten der Insel. Nur verstärkter Schutz kann sie vor dem Aussterben retten.Die LorbeertaubeColumba junoniae, bisher nur aus La Palma und Gomera bekannt, kommt auch in geringer Zahl auf Teneriffa vor.

---

Two extremely endangered Pigeons of the laurel forest,Columba bollii andC. junoniae, on Tenerife

Summary The Bolle's PigeonColumba bollii which lives in laurel forests is, despite many fears, not yet extinct on Tenerife. It still inhabits wooded crevices in the North-East of the island which are virtually inaccessible. Only increased protection can it save from extinction.The Laurel PigeonColumba junoniae, until now only known from La Palma and Gomera, is also present in small number on Tenerife.

     

Host cytokine responses of pigeons infected with highly pathogenic Thai avian influenza viruses of subtype H5N1 isolated from wild birds

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) of the H5N1 subtype has been reported to infect pigeons asymptomatically or induce mild symptoms. However, host immune responses of pigeons inoculated with HPAIVs have not been well documented. To assess host responses of pigeons against HPAIV infection, we compared lethality, viral distribution and mRNA expression of immune related genes of pigeons infected with two HPAIVs (A/Pigeon/Thailand/VSMU-7-NPT/2004; Pigeon04 and A/Tree sparrow/Ratchaburi/VSMU-16-RBR/2005; T.sparrow05) isolated from wild birds in Thailand. The survival experiment showed that 25% of pigeons died within 2 weeks after the inoculation of two HPAIVs or medium only, suggesting that these viruses did not cause lethal infection in pigeons. Pigeon04 replicated in the lungs more efficiently than T.sparrow05 and spread to multiple extrapulmonary organs such as the brain, spleen, liver, kidney and rectum on days 2, 5 and 9 post infection. No severe lesion was observed in the lungs infected with Pigeon04 as well as T.sparrow05 throughout the collection periods. Encephalitis was occasionally observed in Pigeon04- or T.sparrow05-infected brain, the severity, however was mostly mild. To analyze the expression of immune-related genes in the infected pigeons, we established a quantitative real-time PCR analysis for 14 genes of pigeons. On day 2 post infection, Pigeon04 induced mRNA expression of Mx1, PKR and OAS to a greater extent than T.sparrow05 in the lungs, however their expressions were not up-regulated concomitantly on day 5 post infection when the peak viral replication was observed. Expressions of TLR3, IFNα, IL6, IL8 and CCL5 in the lungs following infection with the two HPAIVs were low. In sum, Pigeon04 exhibited efficient replication in the lungs compared to T.sparrow05, but did not induce excessive host cytokine expressions. Our study has provided the first insight into host immune responses of pigeons against HPAIV infection.     

Changes in myoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase in muscle tissues of a diving bird, the Pigeon Guillemot, during maturation

1. The concentration of myoglobin (Mb) and the isozymic distribution and activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in heart and pectoralis muscle were investigated at three stages of maturation of the Pigeon Guillemot, Cepphus columba. 2. Mb is not detectable in chick pectoralis; it is present in fledgling pectoralis muscle and increases four-fold in adult pectoralis. Mb concentration in heart muscle is similar in chick and fledgling and doubles in the adult. 3. LDH activities in pectoralis muscle of fledgling and adult increase to about three times that of the chick. LDH activities in heart of chick, fledgling and adult are similar to one another. 4. All five isozymes of LDH are present in both heart and pectoralis muscle at all stages; the heart muscle shows predominantly LDH-1 isozyme, and the pectoralis, LDH-5. The relative amounts of the five isozymes in the heart extract were constant during maturation but pectoralis LDH isozymes changed during maturation towards a more even distribution of the five isozymes in the adult. 5. Changes in Mb and LDH in the Pigeon Guillemot correlate with the animal's maturation from a sedentary nest sitter to an active diver and flyer. The adult pectoralis muscle probably has both aerobic function for wing-propelled short dives and flying and anaerobic capacity for longer dives.     

Parasites, predators and the duration of developmental periods

Nest predation has been suggested to be the most important environmental factor determining the evolution of incubation and nestling periods in birds. This paradigm is based on a number of comparative analyses that have shown correlations between rates of nest predation and the relative duration of the nestling period. A second important natural selection pressure on reproduction is caused by parasitism. Here, I investigated the independent effects of daily nest predation rates and daily nest mortality rates due to parasites to assess the relative importance of these two environmental factors as determinants of the relative duration of incubation and nestling periods in birds, using the 43 species for which information on parasite-induced nestling mortality was available. The relative duration of the incubation period was negatively related to daily mortality rate due to parasitism, while nest predation had no significant effect. The relative duration of the nestling period was not significantly related to daily rate of mortality due to parasitism or nest predation. Daily nest predation rate was significantly negatively correlated with daily mortality rate due to parasitism in the subsample of species, for which some mortality due to parasitism was recorded. These findings are mainly based on hole nesters and colonially breeding species, because estimates of parasite-induced mortality generally is unavailable from open nesting and solitarily breeding species, precluding any generalizations to these species. However, the conclusions did not change after statistically controlling for nest site and sociality. These results suggest that developmental rates may be more influenced by the effects of parasites rather than nest predators, and that parasites constitute a neglected selective force affecting developmental rates.     

Nest-predation at the edge: an experimental study contrasting two types of edges in the dry Chaco, Paraguay

Forest fragmentation leads to the creation of isolated forest patches with subsequent impact on forest-interior flora and fauna. Forested corridors have been suggested to alleviate some of the impact by increasing the connectivity between remnant forest patches. However, both fragmentation and corridors increase the ratio of edge to core habitat. We studied nest predation of artificial nests at edges between I) contiguous forests and pastures and 2) forested corridors and pastures, in a forest-dominated landscape in the dry Chaco, Paraguay, The aim was lo determine if nest predation was higher near habitat edges compared to within forests and pastures, with special emphasis on edges at forested corridors. We found that predation rates were similar at edges and in interior habitats. Nest predation was higher for both ground and shrub nests in forested areas than in pastures, Predation rates were also higher for both ground and shrub nests at edges along forested corridors compared to edges neighbouring contiguous forests. Forested corridors connecting contiguous forests may thus act as an ecological sink for some species breeding here. Analysis of predator categories revealed that ground nests in pastures were relatively more depredated by mammals and less by birds, compared to both shrub nests in pastures and ground nests in forests.