Population Dynamics of Plant Nematodes in Cultivated Soil: Effect of Summer Cover Crops in Newly Cleared Land

Five nematode species were studied for ability to develop on seven summer cover crops in rotation with tomato transplants grown every third year. Increase of Tylenchorhynchus claytoni, Trichodorus christiei, Pratylenchus brachyurus, Helicotylenchus dihystera, and Xiphinema americanum in newly cleared soil varied with different cover crops. No substantial nematode population increases occurred until the third summer of crop growth. All species except X. americanum and H. dihystera developed best on sudangrass and millet. Crotalaria caused substantial increase of H. dihystera and P. brachyurus but suppressed the other species. Marigold suppressed all species except X. americanum which increased substantially on marigold during the 5th year. Cotton favored rapid increase of T. christiei, and moderate increases of all species except T. claytoni which was suppressed. Beggarweed favored moderate increases of T. christiei and H. dihystera but suppressed the other species. Hairy indigo favored rapid increase of H. dihystera, moderate increases of T. christiei and X. americanum, and suppressed the other species. Number of marketable transplants was reduced after 2 years of sudangrass and cotton; these crops favored increases of T. christiei and T. claytoni. The better cover crops prevented increases of most plant parasitic nematodes in land cropped to tomato, a suitable host.     

Population Dynamics of Plant Nematodes in Cultivated Soil: Length of Rotation in Newly Cleared and Old Agricultural Land

During a 6-year study of 1-, 2-, and 3-year crop rotations, population densities of Pratylenchus brachyurus, Trichodorus christiei, and Meloidogyne incognita were significantly affected by the choice of crops but not by length of crop rotation. The density of P. brachyurus and T. christiei increased rapidly on milo (Sorghum vulgate). In addition, populations of P. brachyurus increased significantly in cropping systems that involved crotalaria (C. rnucronata), millet (Setaria italica), and sudangrass (Sorghum sudanense). Lowest numbers of P. brachyurus occurred where okra (Hibiscus esculentus) was grown or where land was fallow. The largest increase in populations of T. christiei occurred in cropping systems that involved millet, sudangrass, and okra whereas the smallest increase occurred in cropping systems that involved crotalaria or fallow. A winter cover of rye (Secale cereale) had no distinguishable effect on population densities of P. brachyurus or T. christiei. Meloidogyne incognita was detected during the fourth year in both newly cleared and old agricultural land when okra was included in the cropping system. Detectable populations of M. incognita did not develop in any of the other cropping systems. Yields of tomato transplants were higher on the newly cleared land than on the old land. Highest yields were obtained when crotalaria was included in the cropping system. Lowest yields were obtained when milo, or fallow were included in the cropping system. Length of rotation had no distinguishable effect on yields of tomato transplants.     

Population Dynamics of Plant-parasitic Nematodes on Cover Crops of Corn and Sorghum

Buildup of plant-parasitic nematode populations on corn (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) were compared in 1991 and 1992. Final population densities (Pf) of Meloidogyne incognita were lower following sorghum than after soybean in both seasons, and Pf after sorghum was lower than Pf after corn in 1992. In both seasons, Pf differed among the sorghum cultivars used. No differences in Pf on corn, sorghum, and soybean were observed for Criconemella spp. (a mixture of C. sphaerocephala and C. ornata) or Paratrichodorus minor in either season. Pf levels of Pratylenchus spp. (a mixture of P. brachyurus and P. scribneri) were greatest after corn in 1992, but no differences with crop treatments were observed in 1991. When data from field tests conducted with corn and sorghum during the past four seasons were pooled, negative linear relationships between ln(Pf/Pi) and ln(Pi) were observed for Criconemella spp. and P. minor on each crop, and for M. incognita on corn (Pi = initial population density). Although ln(Pf/Pi) and ln(Pi) were not related for M. incognita with pooled sorghum data, separate relationships were derived for various sorghum cultivars. Regression equations from pooled data were used to obtain estimates of equilibrium density and maximum reproductive rate, and these estimates were used to construct models expressing nematode Pf across a range of initial densities. Many of these models were robust, encompassing a range of sites, season, crop cultivars, and planting dates. Quadratic models derived from pooled field data provided an alternative method for expressing Pf as a function of Pi.     

Vertical Distribution of Three Namatode Species in Relation to Certain Soil Properties

Population densities of Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Pratylenchus brachyurus, and Trichodorus christiei were determined from soil samples taken weekly in Tifton, Georgia during a 14-month period (except for April and May) at 15-cm increments to a depth of 105 cm. Belonolaimus longicaudatus predominately inhabited the top 30 cm of soil that was 87-88% sand, 6-7% silt, and 5-7% clay. No specimens were found below 60 cm where the soil was 76-79% sand, 5-6% silt, and 15-19% clay. Highest population densities occurred during June through September when temperature in the top 30 cm of soil was 22-25 C and soil moisture was from 9 to 20% by volume. Pratylenchus brachyurus was found at all depths, but population densities were greatest 45-75 cm deep where the soil was 78-79% sand, 6% silt, and 15-16% clay. In the months monitored, highest population densities occurred during March, June, and December when the soil temperature 45-75 cm deep was 14-17 C and soil moisture was 22-42%. Trichodorus christiei was found at all depths, but population densities were highest 30 cm deep where the soil was 83% sand, 5% silt, and 12% clay. Highest population densities occurred during December through March when the soil temperature 30 cm deep was 11-17 C and soil moisture was 18-23%.     

Population Dynamics of Plant Nematodes in Cultivated Soil: Effect of Sod-based Rotations in Tifton Sandy Loam

In an 8-year sod-based rotation study, nematode population densities varied with different row-crop sequences and grass sods. In continuous row-crop rotations (cotton-corn-peanut), cotton and corn favored rapid increase of Belonolaimus longicaudatus and Trichodorus christiei. Numbers of Pratylenchus brachyurus were quite variable on all crops. Peanuts favored an increase of Criconemoides ornatum but suppressed the other three species. ''Coastal'' bermudagrass supported more than twice the number of B. longicaudatus than did ''Pensacola'' bahiagrass. Numbers of T. christiei and P. brachyurus also were larger on bermudagrass than on bahiagrass. Numbers of C. ornatum were largest in row-crop sequence culture. Average numbers of B. longicaudatus, T. christiei, and P. brachyurus in a sod-based, 3-years of row-crop sequence were smallest when cotton and corn did not follow each other. These nematodes were further suppressed when the sequence corn-peanut-cotton followed bahiagrass. Numbers of C. ornatum were smallest when corn and cotton followed each other, except after 3 years of bahiagrass. Nematode populations were less influenced by row-crop sequence following bermudagrass than they were following bahiagrass.     

Seasonal Population Dynamics of Selected Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Four Monocultured Crops

Seasonal fluctuations in field populations of Meloidogyne incognita, Pratylenchus zeae, P. brachyurus, Criconemoides ornatus, Trichodorus christiei, and Helicotylenchus dihystera on monocultured corn, cotton, peanut, and soybean were determined monthly for 4 yr. Population densities of M. incognita were greater in corn and cotton plots than in peanut and soybean plots from July until January. Those of Pratylenchus spp. were greater on corn and soybean than on cotton and peanut during all months except May and June. C. ornatus populations were greater on corn and peanut than on cotton and soybean during all months. C. ornatus on corn and peanut was more numerous in July than in other months. There was no significant increase in populations of T. christiei, except on corn in June. H. dihystera was greater in cotton and soybean plots than in corn and peanut plots from August through December.     

Alternatives to Fenamiphos for Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Bermudagrass

Plant-parasitic nematodes can be very damaging to turfgrasses. The projected cancellation of the registration for fenamiphos in the near future has generated a great deal of interest in identifying acceptable alternative nematode management tactics for use on turfgrasses. Two field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of repeated applications of several commercially available nematicides and root biostimulants for reducing population densities of plant-parasitic nematodes and (or) promoting health of bermudagrass in nematode-infested soil. One experimental site was infested with Hoplolaimus galeatus and Trichodorus obtusus, the second with Belonolaimus longicaudatus. In both trials, none of the experimental treatments reduced population densities (P ≤ 0.1) of plant-parasitic nematodes, or consistently promoted turf visual performance or turf root production. Nematologists with responsibility to advise turf managers regarding nematode management should thoroughly investigate the validity of product claims before advising clientele in their use.     

Potential of Leguminous Cover Crops in Management of a Mixed Population of Root-knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)

Root-knot nematode is an important pest in agricultural production worldwide. Crop rotation is the only management strategy in some production systems, especially for resource poor farmers in developing countries. A series of experiments was conducted in the laboratory with several leguminous cover crops to investigate their potential for managing a mixture of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne arenaria, M. incognita, M. javanica). The root-knot nematode mixture failed to multiply on Mucuna pruriens and Crotalaria spectabilis but on Dolichos lablab the population increased more than 2- fold when inoculated with 500 and 1,000 nematodes per plant. There was no root-galling on M. pruriens and C. spectabilis but the gall rating was noted on D. lablab. Greater mortality of juvenile root-knot nematodes occurred when exposed to eluants of roots and leaves of leguminous crops than those of tomato; 48.7% of juveniles died after 72 h exposure to root eluant of C. spectabilis. The leaf eluant of D. lablab was toxic to nematodes but the root eluant was not. Thus, different parts of a botanical contain different active ingredients or different concentrations of the same active ingredient. The numbers of root-knot nematode eggs that hatched in root exudates of M. pruriens and C. spectabilis were significantly lower (20% and 26%) than in distilled water, tomato and P. vulgaris root exudates (83%, 72% and 89%) respectively. Tomato lacks nematotoxic compounds found in M. pruriens and C. spectabilis. Three months after inoculating plants with 1,000 root-knot nematode juveniles the populations in pots with M. pruriens, C. spectabilis and C. retusa had been reduced by approximately 79%, 85% and 86% respectively; compared with an increase of 262% nematodes in pots with Phaseolus vulgaris. There was significant reduction of 90% nematodes in fallow pots with no growing plant. The results from this study demonstrate that some leguminous species contain compounds that either kill root-knot nematodes or interfere with hatching and affect their capacity to invade and develop within their roots. M. pruriens, C. spectabilis and C. retusa could be used with effect to decrease a mixed field populations of root-knot nematodes.     

Effect of Soil Type on Population Densities of Nematodes in Soybean Rotation Fields

The effect of soil type on population densities of plant parasitic nematode species in 17 field blocks of four different soil types rotated to corn, soybeans, wheat, and forage mixtures was investigated during a generally droughty 5-year period. High densities of Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus were found in dark silty clay loams. Highest densities of Tylenchorhynchus acutus were also in one of the dark-colored silty clay loams. Light-colored silt loams favored development of Paratylenchus projectus, which developed poorly in the darker soils. Comparable densities of Xiphinema americanum were found in all soils and on all crops, regardless of soil type. Tylenchorhynchus martini, although present, did not build up in any of the soils. Populations of Pratylenchus species were generally low in the rotated blocks of all soil types.     

Effect of Tillage System and Irrigation on Population Densities of Plant Nematodes in Field Corn

Soil populations of plant-parasitic nematodes were monitored bimonthly for 18 months in irrigated and nonirrigated corn plantings using four production systems: conventional and minimum tillage with crop residue returned and minimum tillage with 60% or 90% of previous corn crop residue removed. Populations of Meloidogyne incognita, Scutellonema brachyurum, Pratylenchus scribneri, and Paratrichodorus christiei varied among the tillage, nematicide, and irrigation treatments. Meloidogyne incognita and P. christiei populations were not significantly affected by tillage method, but S. brachyurum populations were highest during April 1981 and 1982 in minimum tillage treatments where crop debris was not removed. In contrast, S. brachyurum populations were lowest during the same period in minimum tillage plots where 90% of previous crop debris had been removed or where residues were incorporated with conventional tillage. Populations of P. scribneri were lowest in minimum tillage during August 1981 and April 1982. Regardless of tillage system, corn yields in all nonirrigated plots were increased during 1982 by application of carbofuran (2.24 kg a.i./ha). No yield increases were observed following nematicide application in 1981.     

Effect of Three Plant Species on Population Densities of Xiphinema americanum and X. rivesi

A taxonomic revision of the Xiphinema americanum species complex has necessitated a reexamination of the host range of species in the complex before recommendations can be made with confidence on the likelihood that specific crops will be damaged. Toward this end, populations of X. americanum and X. rivesi collected from apple orchards in eastern and western New York state were evaluated after 3 months in pots planted with cucumber, apple, or dandelion seedlings. Eastern and western New York populations of both nematode species declined on cucumber but increased to similar final densities on apple and dandelion.     

Effects of Tropical Rotation Crops on Meloidogyne arenaria Population Densities and Vegetable Yields in Microplots

The effects of 12 summer crop rotation treatments on population densities of Meloidogyne arenaria race 1 and on yields of subsequent spring vegetable crops were determined in microplots. The crop sequence was: (i) rotation crops during summer 1991 ; (ii) cover crop of rye (Secale cereale) during winter 1991-92; (iii) squash (Cucurbita pepo) during spring 1992; (iv) rotation crops during summer 1992; (v) rye during winter 1992-93; (vi) eggplant (Solanum melongena) during spring 1993. The 12 rotation treatments were castor (Ricinus communis), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), velvetbean (Mucuna deeringiana), crotalaria (Crotalaria spectabilis), fallow, hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta), American jointvetch (Aeschynomene americana), sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense), soybean (Glycine max), horsebean (Canavalia ensiformis), sesame (Sesamum indicum), and peanut (Arachis hypogaea). Compared to peanut, the first eight rotation treatments resulted in lower (P ≤ 0.05) numbers of M. arenaria juveniles on most sampling dates. Soybean, horsebean, and sesame rotations were less effective in suppressing nematodes. Yield of squash was greater (P ≤ 0.05) following castor, cotton, velvetbean, and crotalaria than following peanut. Compared to the peanut rotation, yield of eggplant was enhanced (P ≤ 0.10) following castor, crotalaria, hairy indigo, American jointvetch, and sorghum-sudangrass. Several of these rotation crops may provide a means for depressing M. arenaria population densities on a short-term basis to enhance yields in a subsequent susceptible vegetable crop.     

Factors Affecting Population Trends of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Rangeland Grasses

The effects of environmental conditions on population trends of plant-parasitic nematodes were studied in experimental plots of five wheatgrasses in the western Utah desert. In a 3-year (1984-86) field study, soil water and temperature affected the population trends of the ectoparasites, Tylenchorhynchus acutoides and Xiphinema americanum, and the migratory endoparasite, Pratylenchus neglectus, on Fairway crested wheatgrass, Agropyron cristatum; ''Hycrest'' crested wheatgrass, A. cristatum X A. desertorura; ''Rosana'' western wheatgrass, Pascopyrum smithii; ''Oahe'' intermediate wheatgrass, Thinopyrum intermedium; and RS-1 hybrid (Elytrigia repens X Pseudoroegneria spicata). The largest soil populations of these nematode species were collected in 1984 under good plant-growth conditions. A reduction in nematode populations occurred in 1985 and 1986, possibly because of low soil-water conditions. There was a positive relationship between high soil water and maximum population densities of T. acutoides in the spring and fall of 1984, and between low soil water and minimum population densities of the nematode in 1985 and 1986. Pratylenchus neglectus populations were affected by soil water, although to a lesser degree than the ectoparasitic nematodes. Population densities of the three nematode species were significantly lower in the drier years of 1985 and 1986 than in 1984. Nematode populations were greater at the lower soil depths in the fall than in the spring or summer.     

Effect of Winter Cover Crops on Nematode Population Levels in North Florida

Two experiments were conducted in north-central Florida to examine the effects of various winter cover crops on plant-parasitic nematode populations through time. In the first experiment, six winter cover crops were rotated with summer corn (Zea mays), arranged in a randomized complete block design. The cover crops evaluated were wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale), oat (Avena sativa), lupine (Lupinus angustifolius), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum). At the end of the corn crop in year 1, population densities of Meloidogyne incognita were lowest on corn following rye or oat (P ≤ 0.05), but no treatment differences were observed in year 2. Wheat was a good host to Paratrichodorus minor, whereas vetch was a poor host, but numbers of P. minor were not lower in vetch-planted plots after corn was grown. The second experiment used a split-plot design in which rye or lupine was planted into field plots with histories of five tropical cover crops: soybean (Glycine max), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor × S. sudanense), sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea), and corn. Population densities of M. incognita and Helicotylenchus dihystera were affected by previous tropical cover crops (P ≤ 0.05) but not by the winter cover crops present at the time of sampling. Plots planted to sunn hemp in the fall maintained the lowest M. incognita and H. dihystera numbers. Results suggest that winter cover crops tested did not suppress plant-parasitic nematodes effectively. Planting tropical cover crops such as sunn hemp after corn in a triple-cropping system with winter cover crops may provide more versatile nematode management strategies in northern Florida.     

Influence of Organic Pesticides on Nematode and Corn Earworm Damage and on Yield of Sweet Corn

Soil fumigants and nonvolatile pesticides increased growth and yield of sweet corn ''Seneca Chief'' over that of control plants in a 3-year study. Nematicide treatments increased average yields by 31% over controls, but did not significantly affect the mean weight per ear. Increase in yield was related to control of Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Trichodorus christiei and Pratylenchus zeae. Nonvolatile chemicals more effectively reduced populations of B. longicaudatus and T. christiei than did soil fumigants. Aldicarb did not control Criconemoides ornatus. All pesticides controlled P. zeae. Pesticides did not control Heliothis zea effectively.     

Community Structure of Plant-parasitic Nematodes Related to Soil Types in Illinois and Indiana Soybean Fields

Comparisons of plant parasitic nematode populations using a resemblance equation and community ordination showed that community structure tends to be similar on dark-colored, highly productive soybean soils throughout Indiana and Illinois. On lighter-colored soils community structures differed somewhat from those of darker soils and from each other.     

Vertical Distribution of Plant-parasitic Nematodes in Sandy Soil under Soybean

Vertical distribution of five plant-parasitic nematodes was examined in two north Florida soybean fields in 1987 and 1988. Soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, and 30-45 cm deep at each site. Soil at the three depths consisted of approximately 96% sand. More than 50% of Belonolaimus longicaudatus population densities occurred in the upper 15-cm soil layer at planting, but the species became more evenly distributed through the other depths as the season progressed. Criconemella sphaerocephala was evenly distributed among the three depths in one field but was low (< 20% of the total density) in the upper 15 cm at a second site. Maximum population densities of Pratylenchus brachyurus were observed at 15-30 cm on most sampling dates. Vertical distributions of Meloidogyne incognita and Paratrichodorus minor were erratic and showed seasonal variation. A diagnostic sample from the upper 0-15 cm of these soybean fields revealed only a minority of the populations of most of the phytoparasitic species present.     

Entomopathogenic Nematodes Are Not an Alternative to Fenamiphos for Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Golf Courses in Florida

With the cancellation of fenamiphos in the near future, alternative nematode management tactics for plant-parasitic nematodes (PPN) on golf courses need to be identified. The use of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) has been suggested as one possible alternative. This paper presents the results of 10 experiments evaluating the efficacy of EPN at managing PPN on turfgrasses and improving turf performance. These experiments were conducted at various locations throughout Florida over the course of a decade. In different experiments, different EPN species were tested against different species of PPN. Separate experiments evaluated multiple rates and applications of EPN, compared different EPN species, and compared single EPN species against multiple species of PPN. In a few trials, EPN were associated with reductions in certain plant-parasite species, but in other trials were associated with increases. In most trials, EPN had no effect on plant parasites. Because EPN were so inconsistent in their results, we conclude that EPN are not acceptable alternatives to fenamiphos by most turf managers in Florida at this time.     

Nematode Control Related to Fusarium Wilt in Soybean and Root Rot and Zinc Deficiency in Corn

Nematode and disease problems of irrigated, double-cropped soybean and corn, and zinc deficiency of corn were investigated. Ethylene dibromide, phenamiphos, and aldicarb were equally effective for controlling nematodes and increasing yields of corn planted minimum-till and soybean planted in a moldboard plow prepared seedbed. The residual effects on yields of nematicides applied to the preceeding crop occurred during 3 years for soybean and 1 year for corn. Fusarium wilt symptoms of soybean that developed during 2 years of the study were less severe in all nematicide-treated plots than in control plots. Typical zinc deficiency symptoms on 30-day-old corn plants were observed during 1 year of the study in certain plots. Symptoms were not evident on plants grown on plots treated with ethylene dibromide, and only occasional plants had symptoms on plots treated with phenamiphos and aldicarb. The amount of yield response directly related to nematode control could not be determined because of the apparent interaction of nematodes on the expression of Fusarium wilt of soybean. Our study strongly indicates that the expression of Fusarium wilt of soybean and zinc deficiency in corn are influenced by nematodes and that nematicides will reduce their severity.     

Inter- and Intraspecific Variation in Wild-type and Single Female-derived Populations of Xiphinema americanum-group Nematodes

Ten populations of Xiphinema americanum-group nematodes were reared from individual females to evaluate inter- and intraspecific variation under identical host and environmental conditions. Data indicated that morphometric variability of X. americanum was the result of genetic variation rather than phenotypic plasticity and that genetic heterogeneity was greater than previously thought. Morphometrics of single female derived (SFD) populations identified different genotypes present in the field populations. Stylet length was the least variable morphometric character of SFD populations, but collectively stylet measurements of all individuals formed an uninterrupted continuum ranging from 107-148 μm. Range and frequency of stylet measurements of field populations could be accounted for by the relative proportion of different genotypes in the population. Nine SFD populations were identified as X. americanum sensu stricto, and one SFD population was similar to X. californicum.