Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis is activated in vascular calcification

Apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells plays an important role in vascular calcification (VC). However, the potential mechanism remains poorly understood. Previous studies showed that apoptosis mediated by endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) participates in several diseases with VC. We prepared two rat models of calcification, vitamin D₃ plus nicotine (VDN) and rapid calcification (RC), to investigate whether ERS-mediated apoptosis is activated in VC. TUNEL staining and cleaved caspase 3 protein levels illustrated enhanced apoptosis in calcification groups. Western blot analysis revealed the ERS hallmarks GRP78 and GRP94 increased by 43.9% and 91.7%, respectively, in the VDN group and GRP78 elevated by 84.0% in the RC group (all P < 0.05) as compared with controls. Moreover, two molecules of ERS-induced apoptosis, caspase 12 and C/EBP homologous protein, were up-regulated nearly 3-fold (P < 0.05) in the VDN group and 10-fold (P < 0.01) in the RC group. Our results indicated that ERS-induced apoptosis may be involved in VC, and amelioration of ERS could be a novel strategy to prevent and treat the related diseases.     

Neuritin Attenuates Neuronal Apoptosis Mediated by Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress In Vitro

Neuritin is an extracellular glycophosphatidylinositol-linked protein that promotes neuronal survival, differentiation, function, and repair, but the exact mechanism of this neuroprotective effect remains unclear. Meanwhile, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) induced apoptosis is attracting increased attention. In this work, we hypothesized that neuritin inhibited ERS to protect cortical neurons. To check this hypothesis, we exposed primary cultured cortical neurons to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) for 45 min followed by reperfusion (R) to activate ERS. We then performed resuscitation for 6, 12, 24, and 48 h. ERS-related factors such as glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), caspase-12 and CHOP were detected by Western blotting and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. Apoptosis was assessed by Annexin V binding and propidium iodide staining. Ultrastructural changes of endoplasmic reticulum were observed under a transmission electron microscope. Results showed that GRP78 expression significantly increased at 12, 24, and 48 h and peaked at 24 h. Caspase-12 and CHOP expression significantly increased in a time-dependent manner at 12, 24, and 48 h. GRP78, caspase-12 and CHOP expression as well as apoptosis rate of primary cultured neurons and the ultrastructural changes of endoplasmic reticulum in the OGD/R?+?neuritin group significantly improved compared with the OGD/R group. In conclusion, the neuroprotection function of neuritin may be involved in ERS pathways.     

Exercise protects against diabetic cardiomyopathy by the inhibition of the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway in rats

To explore the protective effect of exercise training on the injury of myocardium tissues induced by streptozotocin (STZ) in diabetic rats and the relationship with endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), the male sprague-dawley (SD) rats were fed with high-fat and high-sugar diet for 4 weeks, followed by intraperitoneal injection of STZ, 40 mg/kg, to establish a diabetes model, and then 10 rats were randomly selected as diabetes mellitus (DM) controls and 20 eligible diabetic rats were randomized into two groups: low-intensity exercise training (n = 10) and high-intensity exercise training (n = 10). After 12 weeks of exercise training, rats were killed and serum samples were used to determine cardiac troponin-I (cTn-I). Myocardial tissues were sampled for morphological analysis to detect myocardial cell apoptosis, and to analyze protein expression of glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), and caspase-12. Different intensities (low and high) significantly reduced serum cTn-I levels compared with the DCM group (p < 0.01), and significantly reduced the percentage of apoptotic myocardial cells and improved the parameters of cardiac function. Hematoxylin and eosin and Masson staining indicated that exercise training could attenuate myocardial apoptosis. Additionally, exercise training significantly reduced GRP78, CHOP, and cleaved caspase-12 protein expression in an intensity-dependent manner. These findings suggest that exercise appeared to ameliorate diabetic cardiomyopathy by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis in diabetic rats.     

内质网应激在大鼠低氧高二氧化碳性肺动脉高压中的作用

目的：观察低氧高二氧化碳性肺动脉高压大鼠的肺血管重塑并探讨内质网应激（ERS）在肺动脉高压中的作用。方法：将40只SD大鼠随机分为四组：常氧对照组（N）、低氧高二氧化碳组（HH）、ERS通路抑制剂4-苯基丁酸（4-phenylbutyric acid）组（4-PBA）、ERS通路激动剂衣霉素（tunicamycin）组（TM）,n=10。测量各组大鼠的肺动脉平均压（mPAP）、颈动脉平均压以及右心室肥大指数,免疫荧光α-SMA标记法鉴定各组肺中小动脉平滑肌细胞,电镜观察肺组织及肺中小动脉形态学变化,原位末端标记法（TUNEL）检测各组肺动脉平滑肌细胞的凋亡指数,采用RT-PCR和Western blot分别检测各组大鼠葡萄糖调节蛋白78（GRP78）、C/EBP同源蛋白（CHOP）、c-Jun氨基末端激酶（JNK）、天冬氨酸特异性半胱氨酸蛋白酶-12（caspase-12）mRNA及蛋白质表达。结果：①与N组相比,HH组、4-PBA组、TM组mPAP、右心室游离壁重量/左心室加心室间隔重量[RV/（LV+S）]、肺动脉管壁面积/管总面积（WA/TA）比值增加（P<0.0 1）,肺动脉管腔面积/管总面积（LA/TA）比值减小（P<0.01）,细胞凋亡指数降低（P <0.05或P<0.01）。ERS相关蛋白质及mRNA的表达量升高,各差异均有统计学意义。②与HH组相比,4-PB A组mPAP和[RV/（LV+S）]、WA/TA值减小（P<0.01）,LA/TA值和细胞凋亡指数上升（P<0.05或P<0.01）,ERS相关蛋白质和mRNA的表达量均下调（P<0.05或P<0.01）;③与HH组相比,TM组mPAP、[RV/（LV+S）]、WA/TA值升高（P<0.05或P<0.01）;肺动脉中膜层增厚,LA/TA值和细胞凋亡指数降低（P<0.01）。ERS相关蛋白质及mRNA的表达量均升高,除GRP78蛋白质表达量无明显变化外,其余各差异均有统计学意义。结论：低氧高二氧化碳诱导的肺动脉高压大鼠肺血管重塑可能与肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖过度及凋亡过少有关;ERS相关因子（JNK、caspase-12和CHOP）参与低氧高二氧化碳性肺动脉高压的调控。     

内质网膜复合亚基3调控内质网应激影响人畸胎瘤细胞的存活

内质网膜蛋白复合物(endoplasmic reticulum membrane complex,EMC)在跨膜蛋白质的生物发生和膜整合中发挥重要作用.内质网膜复合亚基3 (endoplasmic reticulum membrane complex 3,EMC3)是EMC的重要组成部分,但其在生殖细胞中发挥的作用未见...     

ADSCs-exo attenuates hepatic ischemia–reperfusion injury after hepatectomy by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress and inflammation

Hepatic ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury commonly occurs during liver surgery. Exosomes from adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs-exo) induce a hepatoprotective effect during hepatic I/R injury. This study aimed to investigate the possible mechanism by which ADSCs-exo attenuates hepatic I/R injury in rats. Rats were randomly divided into four groups: Sham, I30R + PH, ADSCs, and ADSCs-exo groups. Liver tissues were collected immediately after 24 h of reperfusion for further analyses. The content of inflammatory factors in liver tissue was detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The pathological changes in liver tissue were analyzed using HE staining. Transmission electron microscopy was used to visualize the ultrastructural changes of hepatocytes. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot analysis were used to detect the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-related genes and proteins. Liver histomorphology and hepatocyte ultrastructure changes improved after ADSCs-exo treatment. Moreover, ADSCs-exo treatment significantly downregulated tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 levels while upregulating IL-10 levels. Western blot analysis suggested that the protein expressions of GRP78, p-PERK, p-eIF2α, p-IRE1α, XBP1s, ATF-6, ATF-4, CHOP, p-JNK, cleaved-Caspase-3, cleaved Caspase-9, and cleaved Caspase-12 significantly decreased after ADSCs-exo treatment. RT-qPCR results demonstrated that mRNA expression of GRP78, IRE1α, XBP1, ATF-6, ATF-4, CHOP, JNK, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, and Caspase-12 markedly reduced after ADSCs-exo treatment. In conclusion, ADSCs-exo protects against hepatic I/R injury after hepatectomy by inhibiting ERS and inflammation. Therefore, ADSCs-exo can be considered as a viable option for the treatment of hepatic I/R injury.     

4-苯基丁酸抑制内质网应激改善高同型半胱氨酸引起的血管重构

摘要 目的：探讨高同型半胱氨酸血症（hyperhomocysteinemia, HHcy）导致血管损伤的机制并证明内质网应激抑制剂4-苯基丁酸（4-PBA）在其中的保护作用。方法：采用蛋氨酸饲料喂养SD大鼠制备HHcy模型,24只大鼠随机分为3组（每组8只）：对照组（Control）、HHcy模型组（HHcy）和4-PBA处理组（4-PBA）;测量大鼠血压和心率,检测血清中同型半胱氨酸浓度,HE染色观察血管形态,Western blot和免疫组化染色观察内质网应激分子GRP78和GRP94的表达,Western blot检测内质网应激促凋亡因子CHOP和Caspase 12的表达,TUNEL染色观察主动脉血管的细胞凋亡。结果：3组大鼠血压和心率没有显著差异（P>0.05）;和Control组比较,HHcy组血清中同型半胱氨酸浓度明显增加（P<0.05）,而4-PBA处理组血清同型半胱氨酸浓度与HHcy组比有降低但没有统计学差异（P>0.05）;和Control组比较,HHcy组主动脉血管平滑肌细胞肥大,走行紊乱,部分断裂,细胞核固缩,管壁增厚,内质网应激分子GRP78和GRP94以及促凋亡因子CHOP和Caspase 12的表达明显增加（P<0.05）,TUNEL染色阳性细胞也显著增多;而4-PBA处理组能明显改善HHcy组主动脉血管的这些变化（P<0.05）。结论：高同型半胱氨酸血症能引起主动脉血管重构,而4-PBA可通过抑制内质网应激和细胞凋亡改善高同型半胱氨酸血症引起的血管重构。     

Identification of GRP78 as a molecular target of medicarpin in osteoblast cells by proteomics

Osteogenic activity was identified in medicarpin (Med), a natural pterocarpan. Further, it was decided to study the differentially regulated protein expression during osteoblast differentiation in the presence of Med. Using 2D proteomic approach, we found that Med treatment to osteoblasts significantly downregulated GRP78, an ER chaperone with anti-apoptotic properties which also controls the activation of unfolded protein response signaling, a pro-survival strategy for normal ER functioning. However, severe stress leads to triggering of apoptotic responses and signaling switches to pro-apoptotic. In order to elucidate the effect of Med downregulation of GRP78, osteoblasts were transfected with SiGRP78 or SiGRP78+ Med or Med alone. It was seen that mRNA and protein levels of ER stress markers like GRP78, ATF-4, and CHOP were decreased in all the three groups with maximum reduction in SiGRP78+ Med group. Med targets GRP78 by inhibiting mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis which is evident by reduced levels of cytochrome c, caspase-3, Bax/BCL2 ratio, and enhanced expression of survivin. Finally, Annexin-PI staining of apoptotic cells revealed that MED inhibition of GRP78 leads to reduced osteoblast apoptosis and increased osteoblast survival. Altogether, our data show that Med inhibits ER stress-induced apoptosis and promotes osteoblast cell survival by targeting GRP78.

     

白芍总苷对心肌缺血再灌注大鼠内质网应激因子CHOP、GRP78、GRP94的表达及凋亡的影响

目的:研究白芍总苷(TGP)对心肌缺血再灌注(I/R)大鼠内质网应激因子CCAAT/增强子结合蛋白的同源蛋白(CHOP)、葡萄糖调节蛋白78(GRP78)、葡萄糖调节蛋白94(GRP94)表达及凋亡的影响。方法:选择健康清洁级SD大鼠75只,根据随机数字表法分成5组,每组15只,分别记为假手术组、I/R组、50 mg/kg TGP组、100 mg/kg TGP组以及200 mg/kg TGP组。检测并对比各组大鼠CHOP、GRP78、GRP94水平,对比分析各组大鼠心肌I/R指标、梗死面积率以及心肌细胞的凋亡率。结果:I/R组和TGP各组的CHOP、GRP78及GRP94水平均明显高于假手术组,且TGP各组较I/R组明显更低(均P0.05)。100 mg/kg和200 mg/kg TGP组的CHOP、GRP78及GRP94水平均明显低于50 mg/kg TGP组,且200 mg/kg TGP组较100 mg/kg TGP组明显更低(均P0.05)。I/R组和TGP各组缺血30 min的T波改变、再灌注120 min的T波改变及LVEDP水平均明显高于假手术组,LVSP、+dp/dtmax及-dp/dtmax水平均明显低于假手术组(均P0.05)。与I/R组相比,TGP组缺血30 min的T波改变、再灌注120 min的T波改变及LVEDP水平呈剂量依赖型下降,而LVSP、+dp/dtmax及-dp/dtmax水平呈剂量依赖型上升(均P0.05)。I/R组和TGP各组的梗死面积率和心肌细胞的凋亡率均明显高于假手术组(均P0.05)。与I/R组相比,TGP组的梗死面积率和心肌细胞的凋亡率水平呈剂量依赖型下降(均P0.05)。结论:应用TGP能够明显降低MIRI大鼠内质网应激因子CHOP、GRP78、GRP94的表达,调节心肌缺血和再灌注相关标志物或临床参数的水平,显著减少心肌缺血和再灌注所致的心肌梗死面积率及细胞凋亡率。     

Calumenin has a role in the alleviation of ER stress in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Disturbance of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis causes ER stress (ERS), and triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR) that consequently reduces accumulation of unfolded proteins by increasing the quantity of ER chaperones. Calumenin, a Ca²⁺-binding protein with multiple EF hand motifs, which is located in the ER/SR, is highly expressed during the early developmental stage of the heart, similar to other ER-resident chaperones. The aim of this study was to investigate the functional role of calumenin during ERS in the heart. Like other chaperones (e.g., GRP94 and GRP78), calumenin expression was highly upregulated during ERS induced by 10 μg/ml tunicamycin, but attenuated in the presence of 500 μM PBA, the chemical chaperone in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (NRVCs). Upon 7.5-fold overexpression of calumenin using a recombinant adenovirus system, the expression levels of ERS markers (GRP78, p-PERK, and p-elF2α) and ER-initiated apoptosis markers (CHOP and p-JNK) were reduced, whereas the survival protein BCL-2 was upregulated during ERS compared to the control. Evaluation of cell viability by TUNEL assay showed that apoptosis was also significantly reduced by calumenin overexpression in ERS-induced cells. Taken together, our results suggest that calumenin plays an essential role in the alleviation of ERS in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes.     

Free Fatty Acid Induces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis of β-cells by Ca2+/Calpain-2 Pathways

Dysfunction of β-cells is a major characteristic in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The combination of obesity and T2DM is associated with elevated plasma free fatty acids (FFAs). However, molecular mechanisms linking FFAs to β-cell dysfunction remain poorly understood. In the present study, we identified that the major endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) marker, Grp78 and ERS-induced apoptotic factor, CHOP, were time-dependently increased by exposure of β-TC3 cells to FFA. The expression of ATF6 and the phosphorylation levels of PERK and IRE1, which trigger ERS signaling, markedly increased after FFA treatments. FFA treatments increased cell apoptosis by inducing ERS in β-TC3 cells. We also found that FFA-induced ERS was mediated by the store-operated Ca²⁺ entry through promoting the association of STIM1 and Orai1. Moreover, calpain-2 was required for FFA-induced expression of CHOP and activation of caspase-12 and caspase-3, thus promoting cell apoptosis in β-TC3 cells. Together, these results reveal pivotal roles for Ca²⁺/calpain-2 pathways in modulating FFA-induced β-TC3 cell ERS and apoptosis.     

Hypoxic preconditioning protects microvascular endothelial cells against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury by attenuating endoplasmic reticulum stress

Endothelial cells (ECs) are directly exposed to hypoxia and contribute to injury during myocardial ischemia/reperfusion. Hypoxic preconditioning (HPC) protects ECs against hypoxia injury. This study aimed to explore whether HPC attenuates hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) injury by suppressing excessive endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) in cultured microvascular ECs (MVECs) from rat heart. MVECs injury was measured by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, cytoskeleton destruction, and apoptosis. Expression of glucose regulating protein 78 (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), activation of caspase-12 (pro-apoptosis factors) and phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) were detected by western blot analysis. HPC attenuated H/R-induced LDH leakage, cytoskeleton destruction, and cell apoptosis, as shown by flow cytometry, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, caspase-3 activation and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling. HPC suppressed H/R-induced ERS, as shown by a decrease in expression of GRP78 and CHOP, and caspase-12 activation. HPC enhanced p38 MAPK phosphorylation but decreased that of protein kinase R-like ER kinase (PERK, upstream regulator of CHOP). SB202190 (an inhibitor of p38 MAPK) abolished HPC-induced cytoprotection, downregulation of GRP78 and CHOP, and activation of caspase-12, as well as PERK phosphorylation. HPC may protect MVECs against H/R injury by suppressing CHOP-dependent apoptosis through p38 MAPK mediated downregulation of PERK activation.     

高脂饮食对小鼠附睾内质网应激的影响及褪黑素的干预作用

目的探讨内质网应激在高脂饮食引起的ApoE基因敲除小鼠附睾损伤中的作用及褪黑素（MT）的干预机制。方法将12只ApoE基因敲除的C57BL／6J雄性小鼠随机分为高脂饮食组及MT处理组。高脂饮食组为ApoE基因敲除小鼠,给予高脂饮食;MT处理组给予高脂饲养外,并MT灌胃。以6只野生型C57BL／6J雄性小鼠作为对照组,给予普通饮食。饲养12w后,取附睾组织制片,HE染色观察附睾的病理学形态,免疫组化检测GRP78和CHOP的表达。结果HE染色显示,高脂饮食组小鼠,附睾上皮细胞形态结构不清,细胞萎缩。对照组和褪黑素处理组小鼠附睾上皮细胞形态结构完整,细胞排列整齐。免疫组化显示高脂饮食组小鼠附睾中GRP78、CHOP表达增强（P〈0．01）。MT处理组和高脂饮食组相比,附睾中GRP78、CHOP表达下调（P〈0．01）。结论内质网应激参与高脂饮食导致的附睾损伤;MT可能通过抑制附睾内质网应激,减轻高脂饮食对小鼠附睾的损伤。     

银杏叶提取物对AGEs诱导心肌细胞内质网应激的影响

目的：探索银杏叶提取物对晚期糖基化终产物（AGEs）作用下心肌细胞损伤以及内质网应激标记性分子GRP 78和CHOP的影响。方法：原代培养SD大鼠乳鼠心肌细胞,随机分为对照组、AGEs组、AGEs＋银杏叶提取物组。MTT法检测心肌细胞存活率,Western blot法检测GRP 78和CHOP蛋白表达水平。结果：与对照组比较,AGEs组48、72 h时心肌细胞存活率降低;与AGEs组比较,银杏叶提取物处理增加心肌细胞存活率。与对照组比较,AGEs组GRP 78和CHOP蛋白表达水平显著升高;与AGEs组比较,银杏叶提取物组GRP 78和CHOP表达水平显著下调。结论：银杏叶提取物能够抑制AGEs诱导的心肌细胞损伤,其机制可能与拮抗GRP 78和CHOP的表达,减轻内质网应激有关。     

白花蛇舌草多糖提取物对喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬的影响*

目的:探讨白花蛇舌草多糖提取物(HDPE)对喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬的影响。方法:实验分为对照组、HDPE 100、200、400 mg/L组和3-MA(自噬抑制剂)组,噻唑盐比色法(MTT)检测各组细胞培养24 h、48 h、72 h后增殖抑制率;原位末端转移酶标记法(TUNEL)法检测各组培养48 h细胞凋亡情况;单丹黄酰尸胺(MDC)染色观察各组培养48 h细胞自噬体及自噬溶酶体的变化;透射电镜观察培养48 h细胞内质网周围自噬囊泡的产生情况;蛋白印迹法(Western blot)检测各组培养48 h细胞Beclin-1蛋白(Beclin-1)、微管相关轻链蛋白3Ⅰ(LC3Ⅰ)、微管相关轻链蛋白3Ⅱ(LC3Ⅱ)、葡萄糖调节蛋白 78(GRP78)、活化转录因子6(ATF6)及CCAAT 增强子结合蛋白同源蛋白(CHOP)表达。结果:与对照组比较,HDPE 100、200、400 mg/L组和3-MA组细胞增殖抑制率、凋亡指数AI升高,MDC阳性细胞率量降低,内质网周围自噬囊泡减少,GRP78、ATF6及CHOP表达及LC3Ⅰ/LC3Ⅱ比值升高,Beclin-1表达降低(P＜0.05);与3-MA组比较,HDPE 400 mg/L组细胞增殖抑制率、凋亡指数AI升高,MDC阳性细胞率、GRP78、ATF6及CHOP表达及LC3Ⅰ/LC3Ⅱ比值升高,Beclin-1表达降低(P＜0.05)。结论:HDPE可能通过抑制喉癌Hep-2细胞内质网自噬,促进细胞内质网应激凋亡,进而抑制Hep-2细胞增殖能力。     

Polystyrene nanoplastics aggravates lipopolysaccharide-induced apoptosis in mouse kidney cells by regulating IRE1/XBP1 endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway via oxidative stress

Nanoplastics (NPs) pollution poses a huge threat to the ecosystem and has become one of the environmental pollutants that have attracted much attention. There is increasing evidence that both oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) are associated with polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) exposure. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been shown to induce apoptotic damage in various tissues, but whether PS-NPs can aggravate LPS-induced apoptosis in mouse kidneys through oxidative stress-regulated inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1)/X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1) ERS pathway remains unclear. In this study, based on the establishment of in vitro and in vivo PS-NPs and LPS exposure models alone and in combination in mice and HEK293 cells, the effects and mechanisms of PS-NPs on LPS-induced renal cell apoptosis were investigated. The results showed that PS-NPs could aggravate LPS-induced apoptosis. PS-NPs/LPS can induce ERS through oxidative stress, activate the IRE1/XBP1 pathway, and promote the expression of apoptosis markers (Caspase-3 and Caspase-12). Kidney oxidative stress, ERS, and apoptosis in PS-NPs + LPS combined exposure group were more severe than those in the single exposure group. Interestingly, 4-phenylbutyric acid-treated HEK293 cells inhibited the expression of the IRE1/XBP1 ERS pathway and apoptotic factors in the PS-NPs + LPS combined exposure group. N-acetyl-L-cysteine effectively blocked the activation of the IRE1/XBP1 ERS pathway, suggesting that PS-NPs-induced oxidative stress is an early event that triggers ERS. Collectively, these results confirmed that PS-NPs aggravated LPS-induced apoptosis through the oxidative stress-induced IRE1/XBP1 ERS pathway. Our study provides new insights into the health threats of PS-NPs exposed to mammals and humans.