中国云南塔城滇金丝猴的社会结构

在云南塔城附近的山地森林中,我们利用摄象机记录了一群滇金丝猴通过山谷和在水源地饮水的过程。我们利用这些记录分析这群滇金丝猴的种群大小、组成成员以及个体的空间分布,并利用连续通过个体之间的时间间隔来揭示社会结构。塔城滇金丝猴群由366个个体组成,是目前所知最大的滇金丝猴群体。猴群内雌性个体较多。猴群可以分为26个单位,其中有19个单雄多雌单位、5个多雄多雌单位和2个全雄单位。统计结果表明单位内个体间的时间间隔显著比单位间的短。2/3以上的亚成年雄性个体和全雄单位一起活动。猴群在地面活动时全雄单位位于猴群的外围,充当前卫和后卫。塔城猴群的生命表组成结构与吾牙普亚猴群的大致一样,同样是多层社会结构,单雄多雌和全雄单位构成猴群的主体。亚成年雄性多数与全雄单位一起活动,表明雄性可能会从其出生的单雄多雌单位中迁移出来。     

Sleeping sites of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Baima Snow Mountain, China

Data on sleeping sites of a group of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti (Colobinae, Primates) were collected between April–July and September–December 2001 to try to determine the factors affecting site selection at Nanren (99°04'E, 28°34'N, Baima Snow Mountain, China). Sleeping trees were tall emergents (27.5±3.2 m) with large diameter at breast height (57.9±16.9 cm) and broad crown diameters (6.3±1.4 m), and significantly larger than other trees. The use of large sleeping trees could provide effective shelters from attacks of terrestrial and aerial predators, heavy snow and rain. Sleeping sites were changed nightly and located at significantly lower altitudes in winter months than in other seasons, which might be a thermoregulatory adaptation or related to snow covering. Such sites tended to be at the middle of sun-oriented slopes, possibly trading off predator avoidance and foraging efficiency.     

Dominance hierarchy and social relationships in a group of Captive black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)

Different types of dominance hierarchies reflect different social relationships in primates. In this study, we clarified the hierarchy and social relationships in a one-male unit of captive Rhinopithecus bieti observed between August 1998 and March 1999. Mean frequency of agonistic behaviour among adult females was 0.13 interactions per hour. Adult females exhibited a linear hierarchy with a reversal of 10.9%, indicating an unstable relationship; therefore, R. bieti appears to be a relaxed/tolerant species. The lack of a relationship between the agonistic ratio of the adult male towards adult females and their ranks indicated that males did not show increased aggression towards low-ranking females. Differentiated female affiliative relationships were loosely formed in terms of the male, and to some extent influenced by female estrus, implying that relationships between the male and females is influenced by estrus and not rank alone. A positive correlation between the agonistic ratio of adult females and their ranks showed that the degree to which one female negatively impacted others decreased with reduction in rank. Similarly, a positive correlation between the agonistic ratio of females and differences in rank suggests that a female had fewer negative effects on closely ranked individuals than distantly ranked ones. These data indicate that rank may influence relationships between females. A steeper slope of regression between the agonistic ratio and inter-female rank differences indicated that the extent of the power difference in high-ranking females exerting negative effects on low-ranking ones was larger during the mating season than the birth season, suggesting that rank may influence the mating success of females.     

First direct evidence of infanticide and cannibalism in wild snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)

Although infanticide has been witnessed in many species of Colobinae, and a case was observed in a captive group of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), observed cases of infanticide in wild snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus spp.) have not previously been recorded. Here we describe the killing of a 1-month-old infant by a male in a black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (R. bieti) group at Xiaochangdu in Tibet. The infanticidal attack was witnessed as part of a long-term observational study of ecology and behavior that began in June 2003. The male was observed killing and eating the infant. The literature proposes three main explanations for infanticide: two adaptive hypotheses (sexual selection and resource competition), and one nonadaptive hypothesis (social pathology). Individual cases of infanticide, such as this one, are important for comparative purposes, but when examined on their own they are difficult to interpret in relation to established theoretical frameworks. The cases we describe here show some consistency with the sexual selection hypothesis, but the lack of critical information (i.e., as to paternity) makes it impossible to draw a firm conclusion. This is also the first described case of cannibalism in snub-nosed monkeys.     

Terrestrial behavior and use of forest strata in a group of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti at Xiaochangdu,Tibet

Food distribution and predation pressure are considered to be the main ecological factors that influence the use of forest strata(basically arboreality vs.terrestriality)in non-human primates.Here,we investigate ground use of wild,unprovisioned black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti by means of the scan sampling method.The results show that the monkeys spent 15.0% of the day time on the ground;16.6%,12.7%,and 15.6% for adult males,adult females and juveniles,respectively.Adult males and juve...     

滇金丝猴0 - 3 岁个体的社会玩耍行为

2012 年7 月到2013 年4 月,对云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区一个人工辅助投食的滇金丝猴群进行观察,采用全事件取样法对该群全部0-3 岁30 只个体(雄性12 只、雌性18 只) 的社会玩耍行为进行了研究。研究结果表明:不同年龄段的社会玩耍频次存在显著差异,且玩耍频次与年龄段呈明显负相关;0-3 岁的滇金丝猴倾向于选择相同年龄段的个体作为玩耍伙伴;0-1 岁的个体更喜欢追逐(67.5%) 的玩耍行为,1-2 岁内的个体主要采取抓打(26.6% )、撕咬(25.3% )、追逐(40.5% )的玩耍行为;2 -3 岁的个体各种玩耍行为的频次有明显差异。0-3 岁的雄性个体比雌性个体的玩耍频次更高。研究结果表明,0-3 岁滇金丝猴的社会玩耍行为符合年龄阶段假说、性别差异假说和运动技能训练假说。     

西藏红拉雪山滇金丝猴的夜宿地与夜宿树选择

树栖灵长类动物要在夜宿地度过半生以上的时光,因此选择合适的夜宿地及夜宿树对其存活尤为关键。影响夜宿地以及夜宿树选择的主要因素是逃避天敌捕食,但对于栖息在温带森林的灵长类而言,还必须面对低 温以及食物缺乏等因素的影响。2003 年6 月至2005 年3 月,采用跟踪猴群,记录夜宿地并依据地面粪便颗粒数确定夜宿树,在西藏红拉雪山自然保护区对小昌都滇金丝猴的夜宿地及夜宿树进行了研究。结果表明:在主要 研究时间段196 d 夜宿地记录中猴群使用了101 个夜宿地,使用2 次以上的夜宿地有67 个,夜宿162 d。夜宿地全部位于针叶林中,冬季夜宿地主要分布在向阳、背风和低海拔处。比较重复利用夜宿次数多与夜宿次数少的树发现:夜宿多的树高大,底枝长,而与底枝高没有差异。比较夜宿和不过夜的树发现:夜宿树高大、底枝长。这些特点表明小昌都猴群夜宿地及夜宿树的选择可能受到逃避天敌和体温调节的影响。     

云南富合山地区滇金丝猴游走模式的季节性差异

从 2 0 0 0年 11月至 2 0 0 2年 1月 ,我们在云南富合山 (99°2 0′E ,2 6°2 5′N)记录了滇金丝猴 (Rhinopithe cusbieti)的游走以及其他行为 ,以描述猴群行为模式的季节性变化及其对温带环境的适应。由于季节间行为方式的相似 ,我们将冬季和春季、夏季和秋季的数据合并表述。猴群终年以取食树叶为主 ,多在过夜地附近活动。在冬 -春季 ,猴群一般在低海拔的南部地区活动 ,同时缩短日行走距离 ,花费较多的时间取食树叶、竹叶和竹笋 ;而在夏 -秋季猴群的活动模式与冬 -春季相反 ,并取食大量果实。我们将富合地区猴群的季节性游走模式以及食性看作是食物供给和温度变化之间折中的结果 ,这些行为特征和其它温带灵长类的相似。此外 ,过夜地的分布也会影响猴群利用家域内各方格的方式     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴（Rhinopithecus bieti）的交配行为

灵长类交配模式是灵长类社群结构和婚配制度的重要表征之一,其研究有助于了解灵长类社群结构和两性交配策略。2013年11月至2014年10月,我们对云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区一人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群进行了观察研究,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法收集了雌雄个体的交配相关的行为数据,主要包括邀配对象、交配过程、持续时间和回合数,以及参与交配的雌雄对在交配结束后的相互理毛的持续时间和回合数。研究结果表明：研究群滇金丝猴全年均有交配行为,交配高峰期在7-9月,两性参与交配的积极性和对季节变化的响应不同;交配主要由雌性通过邀配发动（76%）,交配高峰期也是雌性邀配的高峰期;雄性爬跨频次（年均0.43次/月,n=5）和射精爬跨比（年均19%,n=5）则在全年无显著变化。交配行为发生的典型表现为：雌性通过小跑或跳跃进入雄性视线范围内,爬伏呈臀向雄性邀配;雌猴爬伏时离雄猴的远近距离不同（<1m vs. 2-5m ： 69% vs. 31%）会影响其邀配成功率（<1 m vs. 2-5 m ：68% vs. 40%）;若一次邀配失败,雌猴可能会连续爬伏邀配（最多4次）,连续多次邀配的成功率显著高于单次邀配（79% vs. 52%）。交配结束后雌性会主动为雄性理毛,但雌性主动理毛与交配是否射精无关。     

云南拉沙山滇金丝猴的种子传播

灵长类是森林中重要的种子传播者,其行为对于森林植物的更新具有重要的生态意义.虽然大量国外科学家关注了灵长类的种子传播行为,但我国的灵长类种子传播研究依然处于起步阶段,这不利于厘清我国灵长类的种子传播行为特点.本研究以云南拉沙山为研究地,关注滇金丝猴对果实性植物的取食及其对种子的传播作用,通过在夜栖地和午休地收集粪便分析灵长类的种子传播特点.结果表明:滇金丝猴共取食9科14种果实性植物,其中蔷薇科植物相对较多,共有6种,占所有植物种类的42.86%.果实特征影响着滇金丝猴的食物选择,滇金丝猴偏好选择肉质果植物和红色果实植物,分别有12种和8种,各占总数的85.71%和57.14%.不同类型的栖息地中,滇金丝猴粪便排放的种子有所差异,75%的种子被排放至夜栖地,仅有25%被排放至午休地.在夜栖地中,大量完整的蔷薇科植物种子被滇金丝猴排放至冷杉林中,这对于某些阔叶树种子在冷杉林中更新至关重要.本研究初步证实了滇金丝猴作为种子传播者在生态系统植物更新中的重要作用.     

Social organization of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Central China

Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys were observed for 197 days from 2000 to 2003 in the Qinling Mountains, Central China. The study group was provisioned in 2001 allowing detailed observations of social organization based on individual identification. The group was composed of 45–82 monkeys, all of which belonged to one of 6–8 one-male units (OMU) that foraged to form one big group. The average unit size was 9.0±2.3, 8±1.5 in the winter and 11.1±2.0 in the spring. Immigration or emigration of one-male units to or from the foraging group was observed, as was migration of individuals in and out of OMU, especially for by subadult females and juveniles. Group size therefore tended to fluctuate with the number of OMU and the number of young monkeys present in the group. The OMU in the study area were smaller than those in Shennongjia area. The factors influencing the size of these OMU and the entire group are discussed.     

Arboreal locomotion in wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)

This paper presents spatiotemporal gait parameters of arboreal locomotion in the colobine Rhinopithecus bieti in its natural habitat. While adult females used exclusively either extended-elbow vertical climbing or pulse climbing, the much larger adult males preferred the less demanding flexed-elbow vertical climbing on thin trees or on trunks with handholds. If sex-specific differences are taken into consideration, the differences between flexed-elbow and extended-elbow vertical climbing in Rhinopithecus parallel those observed in Ateles. During flexed-elbow vertical climbing, the gait parameters of R. bieti are very similar to those of spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps) or bonobos (Pan paniscus). Maximum limb joint excursions also lie in the range of hominoids and atelines and are clearly larger than in Macaca fuscata. It seems likely that climbing kinematics may differ more between Rhinopithecus and macaques than between Rhinopithecus and hominoids or atelines.     

白马雪山自然保护区格花箐滇金丝猴夜宿地的季节性选择

2005年9月至2006年9月,在白马雪山自然保护区南端的格花箐,对一群(约250只)滇金丝猴的夜宿地选择与利用情况进行调查.整个调查历时13个月,确认研究群的夜宿点54个,共记录夜宿地的利用次数137次,提示研究群在其中一些地点多次夜宿.滇金丝猴夜宿地在平均海拔分布上存在明显的季节性差异:夏季猴群夜宿地的平均海拔为3 352 m,为一年中夜宿地分布最高的时期;春季猴群则多选择在低海拔地区夜宿,平均海拔在一年中最低(3 082 m).猴群夜宿地集中分布于3 200～3 400 m的海拔范围,随季节变化,不同海拔梯度上的夜宿地数量和利用频次差异明显.虽然猴群夜宿地主要位于针阔混交林中,但是不同季节猴群夜宿地植被的组成明显不同.猴群明显偏好在位于南坡面和西坡面的地点过夜,在夏季和秋季尚未发现北坡向的夜宿地.研究还表明,不同季节,猴群都会不同程度地在少数几个地点多次过夜,但大多数夜宿地在一年中仅利用一次.滇金丝猴为什么会对某些地点多次利用尚需进一步研究证实.     

Terrestrial behavior and use of forest strata in a group of black- and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti at Xiaochangdu,Tibet

Food distribution and predation pressure are considered to be the main ecological factors that influence the use of forest strata （basically arboreality vs. terrestriality） in non-human primates. Here, we investigate ground use of wild, unprovisioned black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti by means of the scan sampling method. The results show that the monkeys spent 15.0% of the day time on the ground; 16.6%, 12.7%, and 15.6% for adult males, adult females and juveniles, respectively. Adult males and juveniles of both sexes showed significantly higher rates of terrestrial time than adult females. Females without clinging infants spent significantly more time on the ground than expected, while females with clinging infants spent significantly less time on the ground than expected. These results suggest that the higher degree of terrestrial behavior for males and juveniles may be due to their higher agility in comparison with females. Our study showed that the monkeys fed more on lichens relative to other food items when in the trees, but more on buds/leaves, flowers, fruits/nuts, resin/bark, and herbs when on the ground. According to our investigation, the ecological significance of the species＇ terrestriality lies mainly in the utilization of terrestrial food resources [ Current Zoology 55 （3） ： 180 - 187, 2009].     

传统文化和社会经济活动对生物保护的正面影响: 来自西藏黑白仰鼻猴的实例研究(英文)

黑白仰鼻猴(Rhinopithecus bieti)是仅存于滇西北和藏东南的横断山脉的濒危灵长类动物,目前仅有野外15群约2500只个体,并且西藏红拉雪山自然保护区的小昌都群也许是自1988年调查以来唯一数量保持稳定的种群。通过调查访问、以及分析社会经济数据中隐含的保护信息,该文通过实例研究探讨了传统文化和社会经济发展模式对红拉雪山自然保护区小昌都猴群的影响,试图探讨传统文化和人类活动对该猴群种群保持稳定的正面影响:1)研究结果表明传统的生产方式对黑白仰鼻猴的生境保护有益,例如主要依靠畜牧业和非木材的林产品而不是毁林开荒种植青稞;2)受印度教和佛教影响的藏传佛教对生灵的敬畏,避免当地村民对黑白仰鼻猴的猎杀;3)一妻多夫的大家庭,其人均资源消耗(特别是薪柴,建房木材等)明显比一夫一妻的小家庭少,这种婚俗也许可以缓解人类索取相应自然资源时对黑白仰鼻猴的生境破坏。因此,考虑到小昌都是唯一种群稳定的群,我们认为是当地的社会生产方式、宗教文化以及婚俗习惯让小昌都群长期维持在该生境的最大容纳量。     

First evidence of prey capture and meat eating by wild Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti in Yunnan,China

Most extant nonhuman primates occasionally prey on fast-moving, warm-blooded animals; however, Indriidae, Lepilemuridae, and Colobinae either scavenged for meat or did not eat meat at all. Here we report six cases of animal consumption by the snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus bieti in a wild, habituated group between 2004 and 2009 in Yunnun, China. At present,only males in an all-male unit within the study group were involved in active hunting. Such a male-biased activity may be related to the group structure and spatial spread of R. bieti. Two females were observed eating freshly killed birds. The findings confirmed that R. bieti engaged in scavenging and, when hunting, employed a cranio-cervical bite to kill their prey. Meat eating is likely a nutrient maximization feeding strategy in R. bieti, especially in males. A begging behavior occurred after successful prey capture. Although begging was observed, no sharing of the meat was seen. The present findings illuminate the dietary diversity of R. bieti and their ability to expand their dietary spectrum.     

Dominance relationships among one-male units in a provisioned free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, China

We studied the dominance relationships among one-male units (OMUs) in a provisioned free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of central China from 2001 to 2005. The band was composed of 6-8 OMUs that stayed in the band for several years. Linear dominance orders could be detected using displacement interactions with directional asymmetry among OMUs in 82.3+/-5% of interactions, and ambiguous and reversed interactions in 17.7+/-5%. The dominance rank of OMUs was positively related with the duration of their stay in the band, and this may be attributed to the association of the resident male with adult females, rather than the fighting ability of resident males, as males do not fight seriously with each other. Subordinate units were observed to merge with dominant units resulting in an elevation of their rank order. The linear dominance relationship among OMUs in the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys may have evolved as a result of competition for preferred food trees.     

Social play behavior in infant Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Qinling Mountains, China

We describe the development of social play behavior and assess factors influencing the development of play in infant Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Infant snub-nosed monkeys began to exhibit social play at 3 months of age, when they spent an average 0.89% of time engaging in this behavior (range: 0.7-1.12%). At 6 months of age, there was a significant increase in the proportion of time spent in social play, averaging 9.78% of observation time (range: 4.92-17.08%). However, from 7 to 9 months of age during the winter, social play decreased gradually before rising again from 10 months of age in the spring. Play behavior in infant snub-nosed monkeys is influenced by environmental temperature. Males were observed to play more than females, although further data on this are required. Social rank did not influence the social play of wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkey infants.     

Seasonality of reproduction of wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan, China

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) inhabit one of the harshest habitats by any nonhuman primate. Reliable predictive cues to initiate reproduction may be particularly critical for R. bieti because they inhabit such seasonally energetically challenging environments. To better understand the seasonal distribution of and predictive cues to reproduction, we collected breeding and birth data in a population of R. bieti at Mt. Lasha in Yunling Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, from January 2008 to May 2010, using a combination of 10-min instantaneous scans and ad libitum observations. We examined variations in temperature, rainfall, and food availability, as well as photoperiod differences between Mt. Lasha and the more northerly Xiaochangdu to identify environmental influences on the timing of reproductive events. Our data show the area exhibited distinct seasonal fluctuations in rainfall, temperature, and food availability. Mating occurred year-round, but peaked in August, coinciding with the end of the period of highest temperatures and food availability, and during the peak rainfall. Copulation frequency peaked 1 month after corresponding peaks in staple foods, rainfall, and minimum temperatures, and 3-4 months after peaks in high-quality foods. Births were significantly seasonal, with a birth peak from mid-February to early April, and a mean birth date of 14 March. Eleven births occurred in 41 days in 2009, and 16 births occurred in 52 days in 2010. Births occurred during periods of increasing temperatures and food availability. Our findings are suggestive of at least one environmental control of conception timing, and support the notion that food availability during key reproductive stages is an ultimate factor for birth seasonality, but provide no supporting evidence for photoperiod during the conception season as a proximate cue to reproduction in R. bieti.     

白马雪山黑白仰鼻猴(Rhinopithecus bieti)垂直迁移

2000-2001年间,在白马雪山国家级自然保护区南任村附近,通过在四个山坡每隔海拔100米的样带(宽5.0米)内搜集黑白仰鼻猴的粪便来研究猴群不同季节的垂直迁移模式。同时,通过在每个地区山脊上和山沟内搜集2.5米宽垂直样带内的粪便,来研究猴群不同季节对山脊和山沟的选择性。结果表明:猴群在海拔3500-4300米的区域活动。虽然猴群全年集中利用3900-4200米的林带;但是具有季节性差异:夏季最高(4200米),依次是秋季(4100米)和冬季(4000米),夏季最低(3900米)。另外,冬季山沟中的粪便多于山脊说明猴群在沟中停留时间长,这与沟中少风且温度高有关。不同海拔带上的粪便密度和松萝量间正相关,这意味着食物资源的垂直分布是影响猴群垂直迁移的重要因素。春季,猴群会下到低海拔采食嫩芽/叶,而冬季则下到低海拔处躲避首次大雪,这很可能导致猴群集中利用第二个海拔带。