Taxol-induced mitotic block triggers rapid onset of a p53-independent apoptotic pathway.

BACKGROUND: At therapeutic concentrations, the antineoplastic agent taxol selectively perturbs mitotic spindle microtubules. Taxol has recently been shown to induce apoptosis, similar to the mechanism of cell death induced by other antineoplastic agents. However, taxol has shown efficacy against drug-refractory cancers, raising the possibility that this pharmacological agent may trigger an alternative apoptotic pathway. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The kinetics and IC50 of mitotic (M) block, aberrant mitosis, and cytotoxicity following taxol treatment were analyzed in human cell lines as well as normal mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) and MEFs derived from p53-null mice. Apoptosis was followed by DNA gel electrophoresis and by in situ DNA end-labeling (TUNEL). RESULTS: Taxol induced two forms of cell cycle arrest: either directly in early M at prophase or, for those cells progressing through aberrant mitosis, arrest in G1 as multimininucleated cells. TUNEL labeling revealed that DNA nicking occurred within 30 min of the arrest in prophase. In contrast, G1-arrested, multimininucleated cells became TUNEL positive only after several days. In the subset of cells that became blocked directly in prophase, both wt p53-expressing and p53-null MEFs responded similarly to taxol, showing rapid onset of DNA nicking and apoptosis. However, p53-null MEFs progressing through aberrant mitosis failed to arrest in the subsequent G1 phase or to become TUNEL positive, and remained viable. CONCLUSIONS: Taxol induces two forms of cell cycle arrest, which in turn induce two independent apoptotic pathways. Arrest in prophase induces rapid onset of a p53-independent pathway, whereas G1-block and the resulting slow (3-5 days) apoptotic pathway are p53 dependent.     

Different cell cycle mechanisms between UV-induced and X-ray-induced apoptosis in WiDr colorectal carcinoma cells

Although DNA-damaging agents such as ultraviolet (UV) and X-ray can induce apoptosis, the difference in the apoptotic mechanism is not clearly understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of these two genotoxic agents on the induction of DNA damage and subsequent apoptotic cell death from the viewpoint of cell cycle regulation by using WiDr cells. Transient G1 arrest was observed after UV exposure, whereas G2 but not G1 arrest was induced after X-ray irradiation. UV-exposure could induce G1 arrest in both mutant-type (mt-p53) and wild-type p53 (wt-p53) cells, but obvious G1 arrest was not observed in the cells lacking in p53 expression. An increase in the DNA fragmentation was observed at S phase in UV-irradiated cells and at G2 phase in X-irradiated cells, respectively. UV-irradiated cells showed an increase production of p53 protein and accumulation of p21 protein. On the contrary, both p53 and p21 proteins remained at a low level in X-irradiated cells. Treatment with aphidicolin, an S phase blocking agent, prolonged cell cycle arrest and reduced the rate of apoptotic cell death in both UV-irradiated and X-irradiated cells. From these results, it is suggested that UV-induced apoptosis occurs mainly at S phase and is regulated by increased production of p53 and p21 proteins, while X-ray-induced apoptosis occurs after G2 blockade and may be independent of p53.     

Synergy between the Mos/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and loss of p53 function in transformation and chromosome instability.

Constitutive activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is a property common to many oncoproteins, including Mos, Ras, and Raf, and is essential for their transforming activities. We have shown that high levels of expression of the Mos/MAPK pathway in Swiss 3T3 fibroblast cause cells in S phase to undergo apoptosis, while cells in G1 irreversibly growth arrest. Interestingly, cells in G2 and M phases also arrest at a G1-like checkpoint after proceeding through mitosis. These cells fail to undergo cytokinesis and are binucleated. Thus, constitutive overexpression of Mos and MAPK cannot be tolerated, and fibroblasts transformed by Mos express only low levels of the mos oncogene product. Here, we show that p53 plays a key role in preventing oncogene-mediated activation of MAPK. In the absence of p53 (p53-/-), the growth arrest normally observed in wild-type p53 (p53+/+) mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) is markedly reduced. The mos transformation efficiency in p53-/- MEFs is two to three orders of magnitude higher than that in p53+/+ cells, and p53-/- cells tolerate > 10-fold higher levels of both Mos and activated MAPK. Moreover, we show that, like Mos, both v-ras and v-raf oncogene products induce apoptosis in p53+/+ MEFs. These oncogenes also display a high transforming activity in p53-/- MEFs, as does a gain-of-function MAPK kinase mutant (MEK*). Thus, the p53-dependent checkpoint pathway is responsive to oncogene-mediated MAPK activation in inducing irreversible G1 growth arrest and apoptosis. Moreover, we show that the chromosome instability induced by the loss of p53 is greatly enhanced by the constitutive activation of the Mos/MAPK pathway.     

Cell cycle progression and apoptosis after irradiation in an acidic environment

We investigated the effect of an acidic environment on the radiation-induced G2/M arrest and apoptosis using RKO.C human colorectal cancer cells expressing wild-type p53 and RC10.1 cells, a subline of RKO.C cells deficient in p53 as well as p53+/+ MEFs and p53-/- MEFs (mouse embryonic fibroblasts). The cells were irradiated with 4 Gy or 12 Gy of gamma-rays in pH 7.5 medium or pH 6.6 medium. p53 accentuated the progression of cells from radiation-induced G2/M arrest to apoptosis and the pH 6.6 environment suppressed the progression of cells through G2/M-phase to apoptosis after irradiation. Further analysis indicated that the radiation-induced G2/M arrest was due mainly to G2 arrest in both pH 7.5 and pH 6.6. Therefore, it was concluded that p53 enhances, and an acidic environment suppresses, the exit of cells from radiation-induced G2 arrest by altering cyclin B1-Cdc2 kinase activity.     

Effects of Iejimalide B, a marine macrolide, on growth and apoptosis in prostate cancer cell lines

Iejimalide B, a marine macrolide, causes growth inhibition in a variety of cancer cell lines at nanomolar concentrations. We have investigated the effects of Iejimalide B on cell cycle kinetics and apoptosis in the p53+/AR+ LNCaP and p53-/AR- PC-3 prostate cancer cell lines. Iejimalide B, has a dose and time dependent effect on cell number (as measured by crystal violet assay) in both cell lines. In LNCaP cells Iejimalide B induces a dose dependent G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis at 48 h (as measured by Apo-BrdU staining). In contrast, Iejimalide B initially induces G0/G1 arrest followed by S phase arrest but does not induce apoptosis in PC-3 cells. qPCR and Western analysis suggests that Iejimalide B modulates the steady state level of many gene products associated with cell cycle (including cyclins D, E, and B and p21(waf1/cip1)) and cell death (including survivin, p21B and BNIP3L) in LNCaP cells. In PC-3 cells Iejimalide B induces the expression of p21(waf1/cip1), down regulates the expression of cyclin A, and does not modulate the expression of the genes associated with cell death. Comparison of the effects of Iejimalide B on the two cell lines suggests that Iejimalide B induces cell cycle arrest by two different mechanisms and that the induction of apoptosis in LNCaP cells is p53-dependent.     

New alternative phosphorylation sites on the cyclin dependent kinase 1/cyclin a complex in p53-deficient human cells treated with etoposide: possible association with etoposide-induced apoptosis

Cell cycle arrest is a major cellular response to DNA damage preceding the decision to repair or die. Many malignant cells have non-functional p53 rendering them more “aggressive” in nature. Arrest in p53-negative cells occurs at the G2M cell cycle checkpoint. Failure of DNA damaged cells to arrest at G2 results in entry into mitosis and potential death through aberrant mitosis and/or apoptosis. The pivotal kinase regulating the G2M checkpoint is Cdk1/cyclin B whose activity is controlled by phosphorylation. The p53-negative myeloid leukemia cell lines K562 and HL-60 were used to determine Cdk1 phosphorylation status during etoposide treatment. Cdk1 tyrosine 15 phosphorylation was associated with G2M arrest, but not with cell death. Cdk1 tyrosine 15 phosphorylation also led to suppression of nuclear cyclin B-associated Cdk1 kinase activity. However cell death, associated with broader tyrosine phosphorylation of Cdk1 was not attributed to tyrosine 15 alone. This broader phosphoryl isoform of Cdk1 was associated with cyclin A and not cyclin B. Alternative phosphorylations sites were predicted as tyrosines 4, 99 and 237 by computer analysis. No similar pattern was found on Cdk2. These findings suggest novel Cdk1 phosphorylation sites, which appear to be associated with p53-independent cell death following etoposide treatment.     

p21WAF1 modulates drug-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia

p21^WAF1 is a well-characterized mediator of cell cycle arrest and may also modulate chemotherapy-induced cell death. The role of p21^WAF1 in drug-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells was investigated using p53-functional patient-derived xenografts (PDXs), in which p21^WAF1 was epigenetically silenced in T-cell ALL (T-ALL), but not in B-cell precursor (BCP)-ALL PDXs. Upon exposure to diverse cytotoxic drugs, T-ALL PDX cells exhibited markedly increased caspase-3/7 activity and phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization on the plasma membrane compared with BCP-ALL cells. Despite dramatic differences in apoptotic characteristics between T-ALL and BCP-ALL PDXs, both ALL subtypes exhibited similar cell death kinetics and were equally sensitive to p53-inducing drugs in vitro, although T-ALL PDXs were significantly more sensitive to the histone deacetylase inhibitor vorinostat. Transient siRNA suppression of p21^WAF1 in the BCP-ALL 697 cell line resulted in a moderate depletion of the cell fraction in G1 phase and marked increase in PS externalization following exposure to etoposide. Furthermore, stable lentiviral p21^WAF1 silencing in the BCP-ALL Nalm-6 cell line accelerated PS externalization and cell death following exposure to etoposide and vorinostat, supporting previous findings. Finally, the Sp1 inhibitor, terameprocol, inhibited p21^WAF1 expression in Nalm-6 cells exposed to vorinostat and also partially augmented vorinostat-induced cell death. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that p21^WAF1 regulates the early stages of drug-induced apoptosis in ALL cells and significantly modulates their sensitivity to vorinostat.     

ei24, a p53 response gene involved in growth suppression and apoptosis

DNA damage and/or hyperproliferative signals activate the wild-type p53 tumor suppressor protein, which induces a G(1) cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. Although the mechanism of p53-mediated cell cycle arrest is fairly well defined, the p53-dependent pathway regulating apoptosis is poorly understood. Here we report the functional characterization of murine ei24 (also known as PIG8), a gene directly regulated by p53, whose overexpression negatively controls cell growth and induces apoptotic cell death. Ectopic ei24 expression markedly inhibits cell colony formation, induces the morphological features of apoptosis, and reduces the number of beta-galactosidase-marked cells, which is efficiently blocked by coexpression of Bcl-X(L). The ei24/PIG8 gene is localized on human chromosome 11q23, a region frequently altered in human cancers. These results suggest that ei24 may play an important role in negative cell growth control by functioning as an apoptotic effector of p53 tumor suppressor activities.     

Normal p53 function in primary cells deficient for Siah genes

Overexpression studies have suggested that Siah1 proteins may act as effectors of p53-mediated cellular responses and as regulators of mitotic progression. We have tested these hypotheses using Siah gene knockout mice. Siah1a and Siah1b were not induced by activation of endogenous p53 in tissues, primary murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or thymocytes. Furthermore, primary MEFs lacking Siah1a, Siah1b, Siah2, or both Siah2 and Siah1a displayed normal cell cycle progression, proliferation, p53-mediated senescence, and G(1) phase cell cycle arrest. Primary thymocytes deficient for Siah1a, Siah2, or both Siah2 and Siah1a, E1A-transformed MEFs lacking Siah1a, Siah1b, or Siah2, and Siah1b-null ES cells all underwent normal p53-mediated apoptosis. Finally, inhibition of Siah1b expression in Siah2 Siah1a double-mutant cells failed to inhibit cell division, p53-mediated induction of p21 expression, or cell cycle arrest. Our loss-of-function experiments do not support a general role for Siah genes in p53-mediated responses or mitosis.     

Aciculatin Induces p53-Dependent Apoptosis via MDM2 Depletion in Human Cancer Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Aciculatin, a natural compound extracted from the medicinal herb Chrysopogon aciculatus, shows potent anti-cancer potency. This study is the first to prove that aciculatin induces cell death in human cancer cells and HCT116 mouse xenografts due to G1 arrest and subsequent apoptosis. The primary reason for cell cycle arrest and cell death was p53 accumulation followed by increased p21 level, dephosphorylation of Rb protein, PUMA expression, and induction of apoptotic signals such as cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3, and PARP. We demonstrated that p53 allele-null (-/-) (p53-KO) HCT116 cells were more resistant to aciculatin than cells with wild-type p53 (+/+). The same result was achieved by knocking down p53 with siRNA in p53 wild-type cells, indicating that p53 plays a crucial role in aciculatin-induced apoptosis. Although DNA damage is the most common event leading to p53 activation, we found only weak evidence of DNA damage after aciculatin treatment. Interestingly, the aciculatin-induced downregulation of MDM2, an important negative regulator of p53, contributed to p53 accumulation. The anti-cancer activity and importance of p53 after aciculatin treatment were also confirmed in the HCT116 xenograft models. Collectively, these results indicate that aciculatin treatment induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via inhibition of MDM2 expression, thereby inducing p53 accumulation without significant DNA damage and genome toxicity.     

DNA mismatch repair-dependent activation of c-Abl/p73alpha/GADD45alpha-mediated apoptosis

Cells with functional DNA mismatch repair (MMR) stimulate G(2) cell cycle checkpoint arrest and apoptosis in response to N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). MMR-deficient cells fail to detect MNNG-induced DNA damage, resulting in the survival of "mutator" cells. The retrograde (nucleus-to-cytoplasm) signaling that initiates MMR-dependent G(2) arrest and cell death remains undefined. Since MMR-dependent phosphorylation and stabilization of p53 were noted, we investigated its role(s) in G(2) arrest and apoptosis. Loss of p53 function by E6 expression, dominant-negative p53, or stable p53 knockdown failed to prevent MMR-dependent G(2) arrest, apoptosis, or lethality. MMR-dependent c-Abl-mediated p73alpha and GADD45alpha protein up-regulation after MNNG exposure prompted us to examine c-Abl/p73alpha/GADD45alpha signaling in cell death responses. STI571 (Gleevec, a c-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor) and stable c-Abl, p73alpha, and GADD45alpha knockdown prevented MMR-dependent apoptosis. Interestingly, stable p73alpha knockdown blocked MMR-dependent apoptosis, but not G(2) arrest, thereby uncoupling G(2) arrest from lethality. Thus, MMR-dependent intrinsic apoptosis is p53-independent, but stimulated by hMLH1/c-Abl/p73alpha/GADD45alpha retrograde signaling.     

Apoptosis and cell recovery in response to oxidative stress in p53-deficient prostate carcinoma cells

We have studied the effects of different concentrations of H(2)O(2) on the proliferation of PC-3 prostate carcinoma cells. Since this cell line lacks functional p53, we sought to characterize whether apoptotic response to the oxidative insult was altered such that, unlike in cells containing functional p53 apoptosis may be reduced and replaced by other mechanisms of cellular arrest and death. We did not observe necrosis in PC-3 cells treated with H(2)O(2) concentrations of up to 500 microM. In the presence of 50 microM H(2)O(2), arrest was observed in the G2-phase of the cell cycle, along with p53-independent apoptosis. In the presence of 500 microM H(2)O(2), addition of l-buthionine sulfoximine increased the percentage of apoptotic cell death. Senescence-associated cell arrest was never observed. Moreover, some of the treated cells seemed to be resistant to oxidative damage. These cells re-entered the cell cycle and proliferated normally. Analysis of the expression of p21(waf1) and of p21 protein levels, as well as the activity of caspase-3 and caspase-8, allowed us to characterize some aspects of the arrest of PC-3 cells in G2 and the apoptotic response to oxidative stress in the absence of functional p53.     

Erybraedin C and bitucarpin A, two structurally related pterocarpans purified from Bituminaria bituminosa, induced apoptosis in human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines MMR- and p53-proficient and -deficient in a dose-, time-, and structure-dependent fashion

Pterocarpans, the second group of natural isoflavonoids, have received considerable interest on account of their medicinal properties. These drugs are employed as antitoxins, but display antifungal, antiviral and antibacterial properties as well. Erybraedin C and bitucarpin A are two new structurally related pterocarpans recently purified and characterized. Bitucarpin A differs from erybraedin C for the absence of a prenyl group in 5' position and the presence of a methoxylate hydroxyl group in 7, 4' positions. These compounds proved not to be clastogens in human lymphocytes per se but displayed anticlastogenic activity against mytomicin C and bleomycin C. Here we extended the study of their antiproliferative and apoptosis-inducing mechanism on human cell lines. Two human adenocarcinoma cell lines, LoVo and HT29, as examples of slow-growing solid tumors, proficient and deficient in mismatch repair system (MMR), p53 and Bcl-2, were used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the drugs and their effects on the cell cycle, measured by flow cytometry. Erybraedin C similarly affects the survival of HT29 (MMR +/+, p53 -/- and Bcl-2 +/+) and LoVo (MMR -/-, p53 +/+ and Bcl-2 -/-) cells (LD(50): 1.94 and 1.73 microg/ml, respectively). By contrast, bitucarpin A exhibits a differential cytotoxicity in the cell lines (LD(50): 6.00 microg/ml, HT29, and 1.84 microg/ml, LoVo). The cell cycle distributions of the LoVo and HT29 cells treated with erybraedin C lacked a specific checkpoint arrest, whereas they underwent a characteristic sub-G(1) peak, time- and drug-concentration dependent. So that apoptotic process induced by erybraedin C in both adenocarcinoma cell lines is independent of cell cycle arrest and of phenotypic status of the cells as well. By contrast, bitucarpin A affects cell cycle progression on both cell lines, inducing a transient block in G(0)/G(1) along 24-96 h, and induces apoptosis with a cell density and treatment time dependency. Similar results were obtained with the positive control drug etoposide. The programmed cellular death on human adenocarcinoma cell lines may be efficiently activated, via a topoisomerase II poison pattern, by erybraedin C, the drug containing regio-specific hydroxyl and prenyl groups. The apoptotic effect induced by the methoxylated bitucarpin A proved to be conditioned by cell density and required higher dose (5-fold-LD(50)) and longer treatment time. The present study provides evidences that erybraedin C may act as a potent growth inhibitory compound, at low and high cell density, comparable to other clinically important antineoplastic natural drugs including etoposide, on human colon adenocarcinoma cells. Bitucarpin A proved less active because it was conditioned by cell density effect, but this finding may represent a clinical advantage against early micrometastatic diseases.     

Definition of the p53 functional domains necessary for inducing apoptosis

The p53 protein contains several functional domains necessary for inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. The C-terminal basic domain within residues 364-393 and the proline-rich domain within residues 64-91 are required for apoptotic activity. In addition, activation domain 2 within residues 43-63 is necessary for apoptotic activity when the N-terminal activation domain 1 within residues 1-42 is deleted (DeltaAD1) or mutated (AD1(-)). Here we have discovered that an activation domain 2 mutation at residues 53-54 (AD2(-)) abrogates the apoptotic activity but has no significant effect on cell cycle arrest. We have also found that p53-(DeltaAD2), which lacks activation domain 2, is inert in inducing apoptosis. p53-(AD2(-)DeltaBD), which is defective in activation domain 2 and lacks the C-terminal basic domain, p53-(DeltaAD2DeltaBD), which lacks both activation domain 2 and the C-terminal basic domain, and p53-(DeltaPRDDeltaBD), which lacks both the proline-rich domain and the C-terminal basic domain, are also inert in inducing apoptosis. All four mutants are still capable of inducing cell cycle arrest, albeit to a lesser extent than wild-type p53. Interestingly, we have found that deletion of the N-terminal activation domain 1 alleviates the requirement of the C-terminal basic domain for apoptotic activity. Thus, we have generated a small but potent p53-(DeltaAD1DeltaBD) molecule. Furthermore, we have determined that at least two of the three domains (activation domain 1, activation domain 2, and the proline-rich domain), are required for inducing cell cycle arrest. Taken together, our results suggest that activation domain 2 and the proline-rich domain form an activation domain for inducing pro-apoptotic genes or inhibiting anti-apoptotic genes. The C-terminal basic domain is required for maintaining this activation domain competent for transactivation or transrepression.     

c-Myc augments gamma irradiation-induced apoptosis by suppressing Bcl-XL

Alterations in MYC and p53 are hallmarks of cancer. p53 coordinates the response to gamma irradiation (gamma-IR) by either triggering apoptosis or cell cycle arrest. c-Myc activates the p53 apoptotic checkpoint, and thus tumors overexpressing MYC often harbor p53 mutations. Nonetheless, many of these cancers are responsive to therapy, suggesting that Myc may sensitize cells to gamma-IR independent of p53. In mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) and in E micro -myc transgenic B cells in vivo, c-Myc acts in synergy with gamma-IR to trigger apoptosis, but alone, when cultured in growth medium, it does not induce a DNA damage response. Surprisingly, c-Myc also sensitizes p53-deficient MEFs to gamma-IR-induced apoptosis. In normal cells, and in precancerous B cells of E micro -myc transgenic mice, this apoptotic response is associated with the suppression of the antiapoptotic regulators Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L) and with the concomitant induction of Puma, a proapoptotic BH3-only protein. However, in p53-null MEFs only Bcl-X(L) expression was suppressed, suggesting levels of Bcl-X(L) regulate the response to gamma-IR. Indeed, Bcl-X(L) overexpression blocked this apoptotic response, whereas bcl-X-deficient MEFs were inherently and selectively sensitive to gamma-IR-induced apoptosis. Therefore, MYC may sensitize tumor cells to DNA damage by suppressing Bcl-X.     

A role of the mitotic spindle checkpoint in the cellular response to DNA replication stress

Replication stress is a frequent and early event during tumorigenesis. Whereas the cellular responses to a persistent block of replication fork progression have been extensively studied, relatively little is known about how cells respond to low-intensity replication stress. However, transient replication fork perturbations are likely to occur even more frequently in tumor cells than a permanent replication arrest. We report here that transient, low intensity replication stress leads to a rapid activation of the DNA replication checkpoint but to a significantly delayed apoptotic response in a small but significant number of cells. This late apoptotic response was independent of p53 and we found evidence for cell death during mitosis in a proportion of cells. To further explore the role of p53 in the response to replication stress, we analyzed mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) deficient of p53 in comparison to wild-type or p63- or p73-deficient MEFs. We detected a significant increase of apoptosis and morphological signs of failed mitosis such as multinucleation in p53-deficient MEFs following replication stress, but not in wild-type or p63- or p73-deficient cells. Multinucleated p53-deficient MEFs frequently retained cyclin B1 expression indicating a persistently activated mitotic spindle checkpoint. Collectively, our results suggest that the cellular response to replication stress involves the mitotic spindle checkpoint in a proportion of cells. These findings imply that the mitotic spindle checkpoint may act in concert with DNA damage and cell-cycle checkpoints as an early anti-tumor barrier and provide a possible explanation for its frequent relaxation in human cancer.